PS101 full list of terms -review Flashcards
vagus nerve stimulation
: a procedure in which an implanted device sends electrical signals to the brain through the vagus nerve; used to treat severe depression.
Trephining
prehistoric practice of chipping a hole in the skull as a treatment for various brain conditions.
treatment or therapy
systematic procedures designed to change abnormal behaviour into more normal behaviour.
Transference
process through which clients come to act and feel toward the therapist as they did toward important figures in their childhood
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
a procedure in which an electromagnetic coil placed on or above a person’s head sends a current into the prefrontal cortex; used to treat severe depression.
token economy
operant conditioning therapy program in which participants receive tokens (that can be traded for rewards) when they display desired behaviours.
Therapy outcome studies
research that looks at the effects of various treatments.
social skills training
behavioural therapy technique in which therapists serve as models and teachers to help clients acquire desired social behaviours.
self-help groups
groups consisting of people who have similar problems and come together to help and support one another without the direct leadership of a professional clinician.
Resistance
practice in which clients encounter a block in their free associations or change the subject to avoid a potentially painful discussion.
relational psychoanalytic therapy
a school of psychodynamic therapy holding that therapists should work to form more equal relationships with clients.
rational-emotive behavioural therapy
Ellis’s therapy technique designed to help clients discover and change the irrational assumptions that govern their emotions, behaviours, and thinking.
psychotropic drugs
medications that act primarily on the brain.
Psychotherapy
a treatment system in which a client and therapist use words and acts to overcome the client’s psychological difficulties.
Psychosurgery
brain surgery often used in hopes of relieving abnormal functioning.
mood stabilizing drugs
psychotropic drugs that help stabilize the moods of people suffering from bipolar disorder.
Lobotomy
surgical practice of cutting the connections between the frontal lobe and the lower centres of the brain.
individual therapy
psychotherapy format in which the therapist sees the client alone; the oldest of the modern formats.
group therapy
psychotherapy format in which a therapist sees several clients at the same time.
gender-sensitive or feminist therapies
approaches that seek to address the unique pressures of being female.
free association
psychodynamic therapy technique of allowing clients to freely talk about whatever they want.
family therapy
a format in which therapists meet with all members of a family to help the whole family to change.
empirically supported or evidence-based treatment movement
movement to help clinicians become more familiar with and apply research findings concerning the effectiveness of particular treatments.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
use of electric shock to trigger a brain seizure in hopes of relieving abnormal functioning.
deep brain stimulation
a procedure in which implanted electrodes deliver constant low stimulation to a small area of the brain; used to treat severe depression, Parkinson’s disease, and epilepsy.
culture-sensitive therapies
approaches that seek to address the unique issues faced by members of cultural minority groups.
couple therapy or marital therapy
therapy format in which a therapist works with two people who are in a long-term relationship.
community mental health treatment
treatment programs that emphasize community care, including an emphasis on prevention.
cognitive therapy
Beck’s cognitive therapy technique designed to help clients recognize and change their dysfunctional thoughts and ways of thinking.
Catharsis
reliving of past repressed feelings as a means of settling internal conflicts and overcoming problems.
biological therapy
the use of physical and chemical procedures to help people overcome psychological difficulties.
aversion therapy
therapy designed to help clients to acquire anxiety responses to stimuli that the clients have been finding too attractive.
antipsychotic drugs
psychotropic drugs that help correct grossly confused or distorted thinking.
Antidepressant drugs
psychotropic drugs that lift the mood of depressed people.
antianxiety drugs
psychotropic drugs that reduce tension and anxiety.
somatic symptom and related disorders
excessive thought, feelings, and behaviours related to somatic symptoms.
Schizophrenia
a mental disorder characterized by disorganized thoughts, lack of contact with reality, and sometimes hallucinations.
social anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which people feel severe, persistent, and irrational fears of social or performance situations in which embarrassment may occur.
risk factors
biological and environmental factors that contribute to problem outcomes.
Resilience
the ability to recover from or avoid the serious effects of negative circumstances.
Psychosis
loss of contact with reality.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
an anxiety disorder in which fear and related symptoms continue to be experienced long after a traumatic event.
positive symptoms
in the case of schizophrenia, symptoms that seem to represent pathological excesses in behaviour, including delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, hallucinations, and inappropriate affect.
personality disorder
an inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behaviour that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning.
negative symptoms
in the case of schizophrenia, symptoms that seem to reflect pathological deficits, including poverty of speech, flat affect, loss of volition, and social withdrawal.
Multifinality
the idea that children can start from the same point and wind up at any number of different outcomes.
loose associations or derailment
a common thought disorder of schizophrenia, characterized by rapid shifts from one topic to another.
International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
the system used by most countries to classify psychological disorders; published by the World Health Organization and currently in its 10th edition (ICD-10).
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
an anxiety disorder in which people feel excessive anxiety and worry under most circumstances.
family systems theory
a theory holding that each family has its own implicit rules, relationship structure, and communication patterns that shape the behaviour of the individual members.
Equifinality
the idea that different children can start from different points and wind up at the same outcome.
dissociative disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by major loss of memory without a clear physical cause; types include dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and dissociative identity disorder.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
the leading classification system for psychological disorders in Canada; DSM-5 is the current version.
developmental psychopathology
the study of how problem behaviours evolve as a function of a person’s genes and early experiences, and how these early issues affect the person at later life stages.
Compulsions
irrational repetitive and rigid behaviours or mental acts that people feel compelled to perform to prevent or reduce anxiety.
Comorbidity
the condition in which a person’s symptoms qualify him for two or more diagnoses.
cognitive triad
a pattern of thinking in which individuals repeatedly interpret their experiences, themselves, and their futures in negative ways that lead them to feel depressed.
Catatonia
extreme psychomotor symptoms of schizophrenia, including catatonic stupor, catatonic rigidity, and catatonic posturing.
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by severe instability in emotions and self-concept and high levels of volatility.
automatic thoughts
specific upsetting thoughts that arise unbidden.
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by extreme and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others.
antipsychotic drugs
medications that help remove the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Agoraphobia
a phobia that makes people avoid public places or situations in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable should panic symptoms develop.
acute stress disorder
an anxiety disorder in which fear and related symptoms are experienced soon after a traumatic event and last less than a month
Superego
according to psychoanalytic theory, the personality element in charge of determining which impulses are acceptable to express openly and which are unacceptable; develops as we observe and internalize the behaviours of others in our culture.
psychosexual stages
according to psychoanalytic theory, stages in the development of personality; the stages—labelled oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital—are primarily influenced by sexuality and aggression.
positive psychology
an area of psychology focusing on positive experiences and healthy mental functioning.
Phrenology
a method of assessing a person’s mental and moral qualities by studying the shape of the person’s skull.
personality disorder
an inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behaviour that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning.
Neurosis
an abnormal behaviour pattern caused by unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
Interactionism
a view emphasizing the relationship between a person’s underlying personality traits and the reinforcing aspects of the situations in which they choose to put themselves.
Id
according to psychoanalytic theory, the personality element representing basic instinctual drives, such as those related to eating, sleeping, sex, and comfort.
five-factor theory
an empirically derived trait theory that proposes five major trait categories: agreeableness/disagreeableness, extroversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, conscientiousness/irresponsibility, and openness to experience/unimaginativeness.
Ego
according to psychoanalytic theory, the personality element that works to help satisfy the drives of the id while complying with the constraints placed on behaviour by the environment.
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by severe instability in emotions and self-concept and high levels of volatility.
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by extreme and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others.
vicarious learning
learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so.
variable ratio schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs when the number of responses required for reinforcement is unpredictable.
variable interval schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after varying amounts of time.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that on its own elicits a response.
specific learning disorder
a disorder that interferes with the acquisition and use of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in the development of academic skills: oral language, reading, written language, and mathematics.
spatial navigation learning
learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space.
Sensitization
a form of non-associative learning whereby a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli. (ex. Watching a horror movie then hearing the flour creak & being jumpy)
secondary reinforcer
a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer.
secondary punisher
a stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher.
primary punisher
a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism
primary reinforcer
is a reinforcer that an animal is born needing such as food, water, shelter.
positive reinforcement
presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur.
positive punishment
presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
observational learning or social learning
learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others, called models.
non-associative learning
learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli.
negative punishment: removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
negative reinforcement
removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur.
natural reflex
an automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning.
Modelling
what occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another.
mirror neurons
neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action.
law of effect
a law that states that behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.
Latent learning
a form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive.
insight learning
a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts.
implicit learning
the acquisition of information without awareness.
Habituation
a form of non-associative learning whereby repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response.
fixed ratio schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after a specific number of responses.
fixed interval schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs every time a specific time period has elapsed.
Dishabituation
a form of non-associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired.
conditioned response (CR)
a physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it is acquired through experience and is usually the same as the unconditioned response.
classical conditioning
a form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response.
behaviour modification
a systematic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning.
associative learning
learning that involves forming associations between stimuli.
Social/cognitive process theory
The participant is highly motivated to believe in hypnosis, and, without awareness, works hard to ignore the pain
Divided consciousness theory
Hypnosis splits awareness into two parts; one part responds to the hypnotist’s suggestion, the other part continues to process pain info but at a less conscious level
sleep spindles
bursts of brain activity lasting a second or two; occur during Stage 2 sleep.
sleep apnea
sleep disorder characterized by repeatedly ceasing to breathe during the night, depriving the brain of oxygen and leading to frequent awakenings.
reward learning pathway
brain circuitry that is important for learning about rewarding stimuli.
reward-deficiency syndrome:
theory that people might abuse drugs because their reward centre is not readily activated by usual life events.
restorative theory of sleep
theory that we sleep to allow the brain and body to restore certain depleted chemical resources and eliminate chemical wastes that have accumulated during the waking day.
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that affect awareness, behaviour, sensation, perception, or mood.
non-REM sleep (NREM)
Stages 1 through 4 of normal sleep pattern.
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder marked by uncontrollable urge to fall asleep.
Meditation
technique designed to turn one’s consciousness away from the outer world toward one’s inner cues and awareness
hypnagogic state
a pre-sleep period often characterized by vivid sensory phenomena.
Flashbacks
recurrence of the sensory and emotional changes after the LSD has left the body.
Dissociation
a splitting of consciousness into two dimensions.
Depressants
class of drugs that slow the activity of the central nervous system.
activation-synthesis model
theory that dreams result from the brain’s attempts to synthesize or organize random internally generated signals and give them meaning.
Wernicke’s area
an area of the temporal cortex important in helping us understand language.
temporal lobe
part of the cortex important in processing sound, in speech comprehension, and in recognizing complex visual stimuli, such as faces.
substantia nigra
a brain region important in fluidity of movement and inhibiting movements.
somatosensory strip
an area of the parietal cortex that processes tactile information coming from our body parts.
somatic nervous system
all the peripheral nerves that transmit information about body sensation and movement to and from the central nervous system.
sodium-potassium pump
protein molecules in the membrane of cells that push out sodium ions and push in potassium ions.
reticular formation
a complex neural network extending from the hindbrain into the midbrain that plays a central role in regulating consciousness and arousal.
relative refractory period
a brief period just after the absolute refractory period during which a neuron can fire only if it receives a stimulus stronger than its usual threshold level.
prefrontal lobe
portion of the frontal cortex involved in higher-order thinking, such as memory, moral reasoning, and planning.
postsynaptic potentials
electrical events in postsynaptic neurons that occur when a neurotransmitter binds to one of its receptors.
Pons
uppermost or anterior (front) part of the brainstem that includes the locus coeruleus.
parietal lobe
lobe of the cortex involved in processing information related to touch and complex visual information, particularly about locations.
parasympathetic nervous system
the part of the autonomic nervous system that is active during restful times.
occipital lobe
lobe of the cortex at the back of the skull, important for processing very visual information.
nucleus accumbens
a brain area important for motivation and reward.
Norepinephrine
a neurotransmitter that is important for arousal and attention.
Medulla
the part of the brain that controls basic bodily processes and regulates certain reflexes.
limbic system
a group of interconnected brain structures that are associated with learning, memory, basic emotions, and drives.
Interneuron
neurons that typically have a short axon and serve as a relay between different classes of neurons; in the spinal cord, interneurons communicate with both sensory and motor neurons
Hippocampus
brain region important for certain types of learning and memory.
Hindbrain
the part of the brain closest to the spinal cord that consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum; the reticular formation begins here and extends to the midbrain.
frontal lobe
lobe of the cortex involved in many functions, including movement and speech production.
efferent neurons
neurons that carry information out from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
Depolarization
what occurs when the inside of the neuron membrane becomes less negative relative to the outside.
corpus callosum
bundle of axons that allows communication from one side of the cortex to the other.
convergent evolution
the development of similar physical characteristics or behaviours in different species that do not share a common ancestor; occurs because of exposure to similar environmental conditions for different species.
cerebral cortex
the largest portion of the brain, responsible for complex behaviours including language and thought.
Cerebellum
the part of the brain, near the base of the back of the head, important for motor coordination.
Broca’s area
a brain region located in the frontal lobe important for speech production.
Association cortex
areas of the cortex responsible for complex functions, including higher-order sensory processing, thinking, and planning—all of cortex that is neither purely sensory nor motor.
Analogous
characteristics that are similar between species and that cannot be traced back to a common ancestor.
Afferent neurons
neurons that carry sensory information from the body to the CNS.
Action potential
a sudden positive change in the electrical charge of a neuron’s axon, also known as a spike or firing; action potentials are rapidly transmitted down the axon.
Absolute refractory period
a very brief period of time after an action potential, during which a neuron is completely unable to fire again.
standard deviation
statistical index of how much scores vary within a group.
perfect correlation
one in which two variables are exactly related, such that low, medium, and high scores on both variables are always exactly related.
Operationalize
to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it.
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
process of modern science where scientists begin with an educated guess, perhaps based on previous research, about how the world works, and then set about designing small controlled observations to support or invalidate that hypothesis.
descriptive research methods
studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a causal relationship.
dependent variable
condition or event that you expect to change as a result of variations in the independent variable.
experimental group
group that is exposed to the independent variable.
independent variable
condition or event that is thought to be a factor in changing another condition or event.
deductive reasoning:
reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations.
correlation coefficient:
statistic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables.
control group
group that has not been or will not be exposed to the independent variable.
Sociobiologists
theorists who believe humans have a genetically innate concept of how social behaviour should be organized.
Psychoanalytic theory
psychological theory that human mental processes are influenced by the competition between unconscious forces to come into awareness.
Gestalt psychology
the field of psychology arguing that we have inborn tendencies to structure what we see in particular ways and to structure our perceptions into broad perceptual units.
Cultural psychology
the study of how cultural practices shape psychological and behavioural tendencies and influence human behaviour.
Clinical and counselling psychology
the study of abnormal psychological behaviour and interventions designed to change that behaviour.
Behavioural genetics
a subfield of psychology looking at the influence of genes on human behaviour.
Applied psychology
the branch of psychology applying psychological principles to practical problems in other fields, such as education, marketing, or industry.
Academic psychology
a branch of psychology focusing on research and instruction in the various areas or fields of study in psychology.
conversion disorder
a person develops symptoms suggestive of neurological damage, such as paralysis, seizures, blindness, or loss of feeling.
malingering
when people intentionally lie about symptoms to avoid an unwanted responsibility.
factitious disorder
people deliberately assume physical or psychological symptoms to adopt the patient role.
-Patients may lie about symptoms or they may actually take steps to make themselves ill, impaired, or injured—swallowing or injecting damaging drugs or substances to become genuinely ill or causing themselves bodily harm in some way.
Studies have found very high rates of somatization in what non-Western medical settings throughout the world?
China, Japan, and Arab countries
dissociative amnesia
are unable to recall important information, usually of an upsetting nature, about their lives (APA, 2013). The loss of memory is much more extensive than normal forgetting and is often triggered by a traumatic event, as in wartime and natural disasters
-fugue, memory loss is extensive.
depersonalization/derealization disorder
stress alters perceptions. Memory is unaffected, but the person becomes detached from the body and/or the self.
three major dissociative disorders
dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder.
