Chapter 7: Learning Flashcards
associative learning
learning that involves forming associations between stimuli.
behaviourism
the systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour.
behaviour modification
a systematic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning.
classical conditioning
a form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response.
conditioned response (CR)
a physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it is acquired through experience and is usually the same as the unconditioned response.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired.
conditioned taste aversion
a form of classical conditioning whereby a previously neutral stimulus (often an odour or taste) elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired with illness (nausea).
conditioning
the association of events in the environment.
continuous reinforcement
what occurs when behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs.
dishabituation
a form of non-associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.
disorder of written expression
a disorder experienced as impairment in the ability to create the written word.
extinction
reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone.
fixed interval schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs every time a specific time period has elapsed.
fixed ratio schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after a specific number of responses.
habituation
a form of non-associative learning whereby repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response.
higher order conditioning
what occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning.
implicit learning
the acquisition of information without awareness.
insight learning
a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts.
intermittent or partial reinforcement
a schedule of reinforcement where the behaviour is followed by reinforcement only some of the time.
latent learning
a form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive.
law of effect
a law that states that behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.
learned helplessness
a situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts.
mathematics disorder
a deficit in mathematical ability, including the ability to do calculations, as well as the ability to understand mathematical word problems and mathematical concepts.
mirror neurons
neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action.
modelling
what occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another.
natural reflex
an automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning.
negative punishment
removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
negative reinforcement
removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur.
non-associative learning
learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli.
observational learning or social learning
learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others, called models.
operant or instrumental conditioning
a form of associative learning whereby behaviour is modified depending on its consequences.
phobia
a persistent, irrational, or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning.
positive punishment
presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
positive reinforcement
presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur.
primary punisher
a stimulus that is naturally disliked by an organism.
primary reinforcer
a stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically (naturally) rewarding.
punishment
an experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour.
reading disorder
a deficit in reading comprehension, written spelling, and word recognition.
reinforcer
an experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour.
secondary punisher
a stimulus that becomes strongly disliked when associated with a primary punisher.
secondary reinforcer
a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer.
sensitization
- a form of non-associative learning whereby a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli.
- involves an increase, as opposed to a decrease, in response with learning
- ex: after watching a horror movie you are startled by the floor creaking
shaping
introducing new behaviour by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behaviour.
spatial navigation learning
learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space.
specific learning disorder
a disorder that interferes with the acquisition and use of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in the development of academic skills: oral language, reading, written language, and mathematics.
spontaneous recovery
re-emergence of a conditioned response sometime after extinction has occurred.
stimulus discrimination
what occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
stimulus generalization
what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response.
systematic desensitization
a process used to condition extinction of phobias through gradual exposure to the feared object or situation.
unconditioned response (UR)
a physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that on its own elicits a response.
variable interval schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs after varying amounts of time.
variable ratio schedule
a schedule of reinforcement that occurs when the number of responses required for reinforcement is unpredictable.
vicarious learning
learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so.
3 definitions of learning
- Mechanisms of behaviour
- enduring changes
- results from prior behaviour
Mechanisms of behaviour
• Learning Is an abstract concept
• Behaviour change is not part of definition
○ Behaviour change refers to performance
○ Learning may occur without change in performance
○ Performance may change due to factors other than learning
• Learning is inferred by change in performance
Enduring change
• Behaviour change induced by learning must be “enduring”
• There are some pronounced behavioural changes that are not enduring, and are therefore not learning:
i. Fatigue
ii. Change in stimulus conditions
iii. Alteration in physiological/motivational state
Results from prior experience
- Behavioural change induced by learning must result from prior experience with those or similar stimuli
- Even enduring changes in behaviour that do not result from experience with environmental events aren’t classified as learning (e.g., Maturation).
2 examples of non-associative learning
- Habituation
2. Sensitization
Pavlov did what, and what type of learning did it fall under?
Pavlov: recorded salivation, precisely measure it to see how much salivation and when it increased
- develop behaviour and drive meaning
- Associative learning
2 examples of associative learning
- pavlov (classical conditioning)
- lil albert (operant conditioning)
schedules of reinforcement
a program or rule that specifies how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer
“simple” schedules
- Single factor (e.g, time, number of responses) determines which response will be reinforced
- Continuous reinforcement (CRF)
- Partial or intermittent reinforcement
classification of simple schedules
- Response-based only; Ratio schedules
- Time and response-based: Interval schedules
- Requirement: Fixed or Varying
concurrent schedules
Schedules that consist of a combination of two or more simple schedules
Matching law
is a quantitative relationship that holds between the relative rates of response and the relative rates of reinforcement in concurrent schedules of reinforcement.
4 factors affecting learning
- Timing- massed vs spaced
- Sleep
- Attention- divided attention and multitasking
- Context- performance improved if context is the same at as at study
Prenatal and postnatal memory
- facial imitation at birth
- classical conditioning before birth
Learning disorders
○ Persist 6 + months
○ No/little improvement from intervention
○ Cannot be explained by:
§ Sensory problems
§ Intellectual impairment
§ Emotional disturbance
§ Environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
Qualitative change
it is not just that we are bigger, faster, or more coordinated, but that we are different in some way.
Quantitative change
involves gradual increases in some element, such as height or weight
Nature vs Nurture
How much of our growth, personality, and development is attributed to our genetic inheritance or the environment we grow up in is still a key debate in human development.
Factors affecting learning
- environment
- mental emotional
- technology
- social
- culture
who was Ivan Petrovich Pavlov?
- discovered Classical conditioning
- discovery of conditioned reflexes made it possible to study psychic activity objectively and led the way to a systematic investigation of associative learning in the laboratory
- interested in understanding the role of the salivary reflex on the action of the stomach during digestion
The research of Shepard Siegel at McMaster University on Drug dependency & its relation to classical conditioning
Drug dependency involves the psychological and physiological experiences that occur as the individual continues to use the drug; the body adapts to the presence of the drug and the individual experiences withdrawal if the drug is reduced or stopped.
How is the nervous system undergoing classical conditioning with addicts? what’s the consequence of this?
the nervous system, due to classical conditioning, anticipates the arrival of the heroin based simply on external environmental cues (called extroceptive cues) provided by the location (e.g., the room, drug paraphernalia, or other characteristic sights and sounds) in which the addict shoots up
-without these counterbalancing effects, the addict’s system may become overwhelmed by the usual dose of heroin, suppressing respiration and killing the individual
Fear conditioning was first studied by whom? what’s and example?
Watson, “lil albert”
“Little Albert.”
Albert had no fear of the rat, but as he reached forward to touch it, Watson used a hammer to strike a steel bar just behind Albert’s head. This loud sound frightened Albert so much that he burst into tears (see photo). Seven pairings of the white rat (CS) with the loud noise (US) made Albert cry and avoid the rat (CR).
-ex of stimulus generalization (feared any fuzzy animal)
why was little albert unethical?
- his mother was never informed of Albert’s participation in the study
- study was carried out without regard for the suffering caused to Albert or for the possibility that there would be lasting harmful effects on Albert’s emotional state
Neuroimaging studies suggest that phobias involve abnormal activity in what part of the brain?
amygdala, a part of the brain that is active when we experience emotions, including fear
operant conditioning, psychologist Edward Thorndike did what?
- created a contraption called a “puzzle box.” This was a cage into which Thorndike placed a hungry cat.
- He called this type of learning instrumental conditioning because the response (stepping on the pedal) was essential (instrumental) to receiving the reward (escape and food).
- Skinner believed that organisms didn’t simply respond to the environment; instead they exerted influence (or “operated”) on the environment, so he called this form of learning operant conditioning.
