Problem 3- Problem Solving Flashcards
well defined problems
- problems in which the initial state, goal and methods available for solving them are clearly laid out
- example: chess
ill-defined problems
- definition of problem statement is imprecisely
- initial state, goal state and methods may be unclear
- example: being happy
knowledge rich problems
- can only be solved through the use of considerable amounts of prior knowledge
- chess
knowledge lean problems
- can be solved without use of much prior knowledge
- most of necessary info is provided by the problem statement
gestalt approach - problem solving - by wallace
- productive thinking: solving problems by developing an understanding of problem’s underlying structrue
- INSIGHT
insight
- suddenly realizing how to solve a problem
- reorganizing/restructuring of elements of the problem situation in such a way as to provide a solution (productive thinking)
- ‘aha’ experience
does insight exist?
-subjective report, behavioral evidence, neuro-imaging evidence all support a distinction between problem solutions based on insight and those based on more deliberate thought processes
functional fixedness
-inability to use an object appropriately in a given situation due to prior experience using it in a different way
Einstellung/mental set
-people use a familiar strategy even when there is a simpler alternative or the problem cannot be solved using it
problem space hypothesis
- an abstract description of all the possible states that can occur in a problem situation
- entire set of nodes occupies some mental area
heuristics
- we heavily rely on heuristics to solve problems
- > rules of thumb that are cognitively undemanding and often produce approximately accurate answers
Means-end analysis
-creating a subgoal to reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state
hill climbing
- changing the present state of a problem into one apparently closer to the goal
- > simpler than means-end analysis, use it when you don’t really understand the problem structure
Progress monitoring
-insufficiently rapid progress towards solution leads to the adoption of a different strategy
Generate-and-test technique
- generating possible solutions and then testing them
- useful, when there aren’t a lot of possibilities to keep track of
Incubation and problem solving
- problem is solved more easily by ignoring it for some time
- mind continues to work on problem unconsciously
- misleading information is forgotten
- stronger effect for creative problems with multiple solutions and long preparation time
- linguistic problem: low cognitive load tasks gave strongest incubation time
Representational change theory
- change representation of the problem
- ways of changing:
- > elaboration
- > constraint relaxation
- > re-encoding
How to get more insight
- incubation
- situation of creative desperation
- more curiosity about contradictions
- encouragement of risk taking
Backtracking
- in problem solving one makes assumptions
- keeping track of situations where assumptions were made, changing them and moving forward again
Reasoning by analogy
- comparing 2 things that are structurally similar and using those similarities to draw some conclusion
- using past experience and knowledge to assist in current task
Working backwards
- analyzing goal to determine the last step needed to achieve it, then the next-to-last step, and so on
- involves establishing sub-goals (similar to means-end analysis)
Duncker candle study
- give participants candle, box of nails and other objects
- task: attach candle to the wall next to the table so it did not drip onto the table
- > results: participants attempted to nail candle directly to wall, did not think about nailing box to wall and placing candle inside
- > functional fixedness
Design thinking
- offers structured methodology for generating innovation
- unnatural act for humans
expertise
chunking theory: memory chunks contain more info and more chunks are stored
template theory: chunks that are used frequently develop into more complex data structures
routine expertise: focus on template thory - using acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems
adaptive expertise: using knowledge to develop (new) strategies
analogical problem solving
if you already solved a problem in one way and do it again this way
creativity
ability to produce work that is novel and context appropriate
(lecture) Sternberg investment theory
creativity is a decision
