Organic Chemistry, Biochemistry and Biochemical Engineering Flashcards
Who coined the word enzyme first?
Wilhelm Kühne
Substituent effects:
Enumerate Ortho- and Para- Activating Substituents
-Hydroxy
-Alkyl
-Amino
-Alkoxy
-Halogen (-OR)
-Acetamido (-NHCOCH3)
Substituent effects:
Enumerate Meta- Activating Substituents
-Sulfonic Acid
-Carbonyl
-Cyano
-Carboxyl
-Nitro
Zaitev’s Rule
(Definition and when to apply)
“the rich getting richer, the poor getting poorer”
The carbon with the fewest hydrogens loses the hydrogen.
Catalyzed the Biochemical Engineering Field
Penicillin
Most abundant organic compounds in the plant world.
Carbohydrates
These biomolecules are polyhydroxy aldehydes, polyhydroxy ketones, or compounds that can be hydrolyzed to them.
Carbohydrates
What are used in animals as a source of quick energy that can be stored in the liver and muscles？
Carbohydrates
Sugars, starches, and cellulose belong to which major class of biological molecules?
carbohydrates
(CH2O)n is the molecular formula for which type of macromolecules?
Carbohydrates
Plants like sugar cane and sugar beets store the energy as simple sugars. Other plants, like corn and potatoes, store the energy as more complex sugars called?
starches
Monosaccharides chemical formula
Cn(H2O)n
Monosaccharides:
Differentiate Aldoses and Ketoses
Aldoses: contains aldehyde group. Carbonyl (C=O) at C1 (at one end)
Ketoses: contains ketone group. Carbonyl (C=O) at other carbon atom
Enumerate Monosaccharides
ALL ALTruists GLadly MAke GUm In GALlon TAnks
-Allose
-Altrase
-Glucose
-Mannose
-Gulose
-Idose
-Galactose
-Talose
Explain D-L stereochemistry of Carbohydrates
*Emil Fischer
Dextrorotatory – highest numbered chiral carbon on right side
Levorotatory - highest numbered chiral carbon on left side
Can also be based on penultimate carbon (2nd to last)
What are chiral carbons?
Carbon connected to four different functional groups
Describe anomers, alpha and beta anomers
Anomeric carbon - Carbon in ring attached to hydroxyl group (-OH)
Alpha anomer = trans configuration
Beta anomer = cis config, more contributing
Bonds between monosaccharaide units
Glycosidic bond
Which of the following is NOT a polysaccharide?
A. Glycogen
B. Starch
C. Sucrose
D. Cellulose
Sucrose
Oligosaccharides vs Polysaccharides
Oligosaccharides: 6 to 10 monosaccharide units
Polysaccharides: >10 monosaccharide units
Found in cell walls of nearly all plants where it gives support and rigidity to plant stems.
ADDITIONAL: What is its composition?
Cellulose
20% amylose, 80% amylopectin
Main carbohydrate found in the seeds and roots of plants.
Starch
Enumerate Disaccharides (and combinations)
1) Sucrose
- Glucose + Fructose
- a-1,2-glycosidic bond
- From sugar cane and photosynthetic plants
- Only non-reducing sugar (negative Fehling’s)
2) Maltose
- Glucose + Glucose
- from hydrolysis of starch
- a-1,4-glycosidic bond.
3) Lactose
- Glucose + Galactose
- b-1,4-glycosidic bond
4) Cellobiose
- from partial hydrolysis of cellulose
- Beta-Glycosidic Linkage
Differentiate bonds in Disaccharides:
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
Cellobiose
Sucrose: a(1–>2)
Lactose: B(1–>4)
Maltose: a(1–>4)
Cellobiose: B(1–>4)
Describe Sucrose
1) Sucrose
- Glucose + Fructose
- From sugar cane and photosynthetic plants
- Only non-reducing sugar (negative Fehling’s)
Describe Maltose
2) Maltose
- Glucose + Glucose
- from hydrolysis of starch
- Alpha-Glycosidic Linkage
Describe Lactose
3) Lactose
- Glucose + Galactose
- Beta-Glycosidic Linkage
Describe Cellobiose
4) Cellobiose
- from partial hydrolysis of cellulose
- Beta-Glycosidic Linkage
Most abundant disaccharide in the biological world.
Sucrose
Describe the following Polysaccharides:
Starch
Amylose
Amylopectin
Glycogen
Celulose
*Starch - energy storage for plants. Can be separated into two fractions: amylose and amylopectin
* Amylose - 1,4-ALPHA-glycosidic bonds
* Amylopectin - branching with 1,4-ALPHA-glycosidic bonds & 1,6-ALPHA-glycosidic bonds
* Glycogen - energy storage for animals. similar structure to amylopectin but more extensive branching
* Celulose -1,4-BETA-glycosidic bonds
Animals stored energy in glycogen, while plants in starch. What is the difference of their structure?
Starch - sugar molecules linked in same interval
Glycogen - branching chains
Proponent of ABO blood group system
Karl Landsteiner
Invert sugar consists of ___ and ___
fructose and glucose
Describe Chemical Characterization of Sugars
Fehling’s Test
Tollen’s Test
Benedict’s Test
Iodine Test
IDENTIFY REDUCING SUGARS
Fehling’s Test: form red ppt
Tollen’s Test: form silver mirror
Benedict’s Test: form brick red ppt
OTHERS
Iodine Test: identify presence of starch. Form blue solution
Molisch’s Test: identify presence of carbohydrates
AMINO ACIDS:
Enumerate amino acids with Non-Polar Side Chains
GAV LIM PTP
* Glycine
* Alanine
* Valine
* Leucine
* IsoLeucinE (ILE)
* Methionine
* (F) Phenylalanine
* (W) Tryptophan
* Proline
AMINO ACIDS:
Enumerate amino acids with Polar Side Chains
STC TAG
* Serine
* Threonine
* Cysteine
* tYrosine
* asparagiNe
* (Q) glutamine
AMINO ACIDS:
Enumerate amino acids with Electrically Charged Side Chains
AG HAL
Acidic:
* (D) Aspartate
* (E) Glutamate
Basic:
* (K) Lysine
* (R) aRginine
* Histidine
Solution used to differentiate between water-soluble carbohydrate and ketone functional groups, and as a test for reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars
Fehling solution
Which macromolecule does not dissolve in water?
lipids
What are the monomers of lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol
Lipids are used by the body to perform all of the following functions EXCEPT:
A. membrane structural material.
B. enzyme action.
C. insulation.
D. a rich energy source.
enzyme action
________ are the most abundant lipid present in an organism.
Fats / Triacylglycerols
Fats as compared to oils have _____
less unsaturated glycerides of fatty acid
Fats that have fatty acids with only single covalent bonds in their carbon skeletons are ____
saturated
Differentiate Hydrolysable and Non-Hydrolysable Lipids
Hydrolysable Lipids: CAN be cleaved into smaller units
Non-Hydrolysable Lipids: CANNOT be cleaved into smaller units
Describe Waxes
- C16 - C36
- Hydrolysable
- Simplest Hydrolysable Lipid
- ester
- hydrophobic
Describe Triacylglycerol
- Hydrolysable
- Most abundant lipid
- energy storage
- Triesters that produces glycerol and fatty acid
Describe Sphingomyelins
- Hydrolysable
- Component of lipid bilayer
-Found as insulation in nerve cells (myelin sheathes)
Describe Phosphoacylglycerols
- Hydrolysable
- ## 2nd most abundant lipid
Fats are esters derived from fatty acids stored via esterification with glycerol. Due to this reaction, fats are also referred to as:
Glycerides
Glycerides is also known as ___
Triacylglycerols
Triacylglycerides
Unsaturation of the acid chains of a fat results in a/an ________ in their melting point.
Decrease
Defined by their physical properties, NOT by particular functional groups
Lipids
Where in the body does fatty acid synthesis occur?
Cytoplasm and Endoplasmic reticulum
Where in the body does protein synthesis occur?
Ribosome
Lipids that mainly contain ester units. Can be hydrolyzed
Hydrolysable Lipids
Simplest hydrolysable lipids. Formed from alcohol and fatty acid. Hydrophobic.
Waxes
Differentiate Animal fats and Vegetable oils
Animal fats: composed of saturated fatty acids, thus higher melt pt and solid at room temp.
Vegetable oils: composed of unsaturated fatty acids, this lower melt pt. and liquid at room temp.
Hydrolysis of triglyceride to produce glycerol + soap
Saponification
Salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.
Soap
Soaps are _____ produced from the saponification (base hydrolysis) of animal fats (glycerides)
sodium & potassium salts of fatty acid
Common bases for saponification
NaOH or KOH
These are spherical clusters of hundreds of soap molecules:
Micelles
_____ involves the industrial hydrogenation of unsaturated fats (oils) in the presence of nickel catalyst at 175-190 degC and 20-40 psi.
Saturation / Hydrogenation
____ of fat is due to the presence of volatile, bad smelling acids and aldehydes.
Rancidity
Hydrolysis of triglycerides under basic conditions, producing glycerol and soaps
Saponification
Process that turns vegetable oil to margarine
Hardening
Important fats for the body that can be found in eggyolks and soybeans
Lecithin
Lipids important biological regulators that show dramatic physiological effects when administered to living organisms.
Steroids
Enumerate Non-Hydrolysable Lipid
FETS
Fat Soluble Vitamins
Eicosanoids
Terpenes
Steroids
An organic compound required by organisms in minute quantities for growth and reproduction because it cannot be synthesized by the organism; it often serve as enzyme cofactors or parts of cofactors.
vitamin
Explain Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Non-Hydrolysable Lipid
Vitamins that must be obtained from food, but do not have to be ingested every day.
Vitamin A - Retinol
Vitamin D - Calciferol
Vitamin E - a-Tocopherol
Vitamin K - Phylloquinone
Describe Terpenes
(Hydrolysable? Function? Composition?)
Non-Hydrolysable Lipid
Lipids found in the essential oils of many plants.
Consists of repeating units of isoprene
Describe Eicosanoids
(Hydrolysable? Function? Composition?)
-Non-Hydrolysable Lipid
- Biologically active
-containing 20+ C’s derived from ARACHIDONIC (C20) acid.
Enumerate Saturated Fatty Acids by increasing MW, melting point, boiling point
Laura Makes Pancakes on Saturday Afternoon
Lauric C12 < Myristic C14 < Palmitic C16 < Stearic C18 < Arachidic Acid C20
Describe Steroids
(Hydrolysable? Function? Composition?)
- Non-Hydrolysable Lipid
- Biologically active
- Consists of 3 six-membered rings and 1 five-membered ring joined together
Describe Cholesterol
(Hydrolysable? Function? Composition?)
- Most abundant and most important steroid
- Plasma membrane of animal cells
- Starting material for synthesis of other steroids
Sex hormones are derived from ___
Androgens are for ___
Estrogens for ___
Cholesterol
Males
Females
The main fate of amino acids is the synthesis of ____
Protein
Biomolecule made of long chains of amino acid residues.
Proteins
These biomolecules are polyamides whose monomers from which they are derived are α-amino carboxylic acids known as amino acids.
Proteins
What are described as the “building blocks of Protein”?
Amino Acids
Proteins are ____ made of amino acid _____.
polymers; monomers
Differentiate proteins and peptides
proteins: > 50 amino acids
peptides: < 50 amino acids
____ is a disorder which results from the replacement of one glutamic acid side chain in the hemoglobin molecule by a valine unit.
Sickle-cell anemia
PROTEIN:
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary Structure of Protein
Primary: Amino acid sequence
Secondary: Alpha helix coil or beta sheet
Tertiary: fold of proteins
- #d shaped adopted by the entire peptide chain
Quaternary: polypeptide chains
The local spatial arrangement of a polypeptide’s backbone atoms without regard to the conformation of its side chains can be called as ___
Secondary structure
The primary stabilizing force of protein secondary structure is:
Hydrogen bonds
In this type of structure, most of carbonyl groups of peptide bonds forms a hydrogen bond with the amide nitrogen of another peptide bond four amino acids further down the polypeptide chain:
Alpha-helix
The alpha helix found in myoglobin can best be described as
Secondary structure
The action of disrupting the threedimensional shape of a protein is termed ___
denaturation
Enumerate the Essential Amino Acids
PriVaTe TIM HALL (PVT TIM HALL)
Phenylalanine
Valine
Tryptophan
Threonine
Isoleucine
Methionine
Histidine
Arginine (not essential for adults)
Leucine
Lysine
Found in hair, nails and skin
Keratin
Most abundant protein in invertebrates. Also found in bones teeth and blood vessels
Collagen
Where collagen can be found?
found in bones teeth and blood vessels
Protein responsible for transporting oxygen
Hemoglobin
Protein chains that are easily soluble in water, found in enzymes, spherical conformation
Globular
Protein chains that are found as parallel polypeptide chains in long sheets, water insoluble, tough, stretchy
Fibrous
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic
of a globular protein?
* A) Polypeptide chain in extended, long sheets
* B) Polypeptide chains are folded in a spherical shape.
* C) Contains several types of secondary structure
* D) Typical for regulatory proteins
Polypeptide chain in extended, long sheets
Bonds formed by joining amino groups
Peptide bond
Cell Energy Generation:
Enumerate the products of
Cellular Respiration
Electron Transport Chain
Glycolysis
Citric Acid Cycle
Fermentation (net product)
Cellular Respiration: 36 or 38 ATP
Electron Transport Chain: 32-34 ATP per glucose
Glycolysis: 2 ATP + 2 pyruvates
Citric Acid Cycle: 2 ATP (due to 2 citric acid processed)
Fermentation (net product): 2 ATP per glucose
Cell Energy Generation:
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration: 36 or 38 ATP
Cell Energy Generation:
Electron Transport Chain
Electron Transport Chain: 32-34 ATP per glucose
Cell Energy Generation:
Glycolysis
Glycolysis: 2 ATP + 2 pyruvates
Cell Energy Generation:
Citric Acid Cycle
Citric Acid Cycle: 2 ATP (due to 2 citric acid processed)
Cell Energy Generation:
Fermentation
Fermentation (net product): 2 ATP per glucose
Summary:
Glycolysis (Involved Ratio)
Glucose:Pyruvate:ATP:AcetylCoA
= 1 : 2 : 2 : 2
Summary:
Energy Yielding Phase
- irreversible phase:
phosphoenolpyrovate to pyruvate (pyruvate kinase) - produce 4 ATP
The cycle that oxidizes acetyl coenzyme A to CO2 and generates NADH and FADH2 for oxidation in the electron transport chain; the cycle also supplies carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.
Tricarboxylic acid cycle
Use of microorganisms to convert monosaccharides to alcohols
Fermentation
Fermentation product of pyruvate in animals
Lactate
Efficiency of cellular respiration
39% (263 kcal/686 kcal)
The nucleic acid that constitutes the genetic material of all cellular organisms.
DNA
What is/are the difference(s) between RNA and DNA?
a) DNA contains thymine and RNA contains uracil
b) RNA is found in the cytoplasm, whereas DNA is found in the cell nucleus
The only base in the following that is not present in DNA is ____
(a) pyridine
(b) adenine
(c) guanine
(d) cytosine
pyridine
Describe Chargaff’s Rule
Dictates # guanine in DNA:
A = T, C = G
(ATeng CiGa)
DNA:
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Structure of DNA
Primary: nucleotide sequence
Secondary: double helix
Tertiary: supercoils
Explain the Central Dogma of Genetics
[DNA] -transcription-
[mRNA] -translation-
[protein]
Base sugar of RNA
Ribose
The organelle where protein synthesis occurs; the message encoded in mRNA is translated here.
ribosome
Segment of DNA molecule carrying the sequence of bases that directs the synthesis of particular protein or RNA.
genes
yielding two identical DNA molecules to the original one
replication
process of encoding and transferring genetic code from the DNA to mRNA
transcription
The process in which single-stranded RNA with a base sequence complementary to the template strand of DNA or RNA is synthesized.
transcription
process of converting genetic code into protein
translation
Contains the codon
mRNA (Messenger RNA)
Contains the anti-codon
tRNA (Transfer RNA)
Combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis.
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that directs the incorporation of an amino acid during protein synthesis or signals the start or stop of translation.
codon
assembly of DNA coiled around protein cores called histones
nucleosomes
Positive result in Schiff’s test means the presence of ____
Aldehydes
In a Michaelis-Menten enzyme mechanism, what substrate concentrations (relative to Km) are needed for the reaction rate to be 0.5 times Vmax?
1.0 Km
Enzymes related to DNA:
Define the functions of the following
helicase
Topoisomerase
DNA polymerase
DNA ligase
Helicase: protein that unwinds the double helix DNA
Topoisomerase: enzyme that unwinds DNA
DNA polymerase: enzyme that replicates DNA to produce a new strand
DNA ligase: enzyme that forms the phosphodiester bond between DNA pieces.
A soap molecule has ____ and ___
has a non polar end and a polar end
A polymer composite used as food containers for ovenable dishes
BMC polyester
Polymers which are capable of forming an ordered solution
Lyotropic
Polymers which are capable of forming an ordered melt.
thermotropic
Which of the following is known as Freon
CCl2F2
Which of the following is chloroform?
CHCl3
In chemical usage, plastics ____ when heated and can be ___ under pressure
softens when heated and can be molded under pressure
In chemical reactions involving alkenes, halogen atoms can replace hydrogen atoms. There reactions are called
dehydrogenation
Vodka that is 90 proof contains ____
45% alcohol
Saponification is a reaction in which a triacylglycerol (or triglyceride) reactions with a strong base to form ___ and ___
glycerol and three soap molecules
Nylons are
polyamides
Dacron is a ___ while Nylons are ___
polyester, polyamide
Plastic bags are usually made from ___
Ethylene (C2H4)
CH2=CH2
Inventor of PF plastics (bakelite)
Leo Baekland
Oil of wintergreen
methyl salycylate
Dacron is a ___
polyester
Produce of the reaction between alcohol and carboxylic acid is known as ___
ester
These compounds are formed by the reaction of acids with alcohol.
Ester
Benzene undergoes substitution reactions rather than addition reactions because its ring structure is __-
very stable
Natural rubber is also known as
polyisoprene
Father of organic chemistry
Friedrich Wohler
When an alcohol is dehydrated is forms
an alkene
Formula of acrylonitrite
C3H3N
The Lucas test is used to determine the types of
alcohol
If an aldehyde is placed in Benedict’s solution, it reacts to form
cuprous oxide and an acid
An aldehyde used as preservative and a germicide is
acetaldehyde
What acid is found in an ant bite?
formic acid
A carboxylic acid which contributes to the strong odor of rancid butter and other fats
butyric acid
A number used to predict the geometry of a molecule.
steric number
An energy-yielding process in which an electron donor is oxidized using an
inorganic electron acceptor. The acceptor may be either oxygen or another inorganic acceptor.
respiration
The most abundant organic substance found in nature is ____
cellulose
Classification based on Temperature:
Enumerate the temperature ranges
Psychrophile: 10 - 15 degC
Psychrotroph: 15 - 30 degC
Mesophile: 30 - 45 degC
Thermophile: 50 - 85 degC
Microorganism that grows well at 0°C with optimum growth temperature of 15°C or lower and a maximum temperature around 20°C.
psychrophiles
Bacteria which can grow at an optimum temperature range of 55⁰ to 85⁰C
thermophiles
Bacteria which grow over the temperature range 7⁰ - 45⁰C
mesophiles
Amount of carboxylic acid groups in a chemical compound
Acidic Number
Measure of degree of unsaturated of fatty acid
Iodine Number
Amount of KOH to saponify 1 gram of fat
Saponification Number
Characteristic fluidity of materials under specific flow conditions
Deborah Number
Enzyme Classifications:
Enumerate and Define function
Over The HILL
a) Oxidoreductases - redox reactions
b) Transferases - functional group transfer
c) Hydrolases - hydrolysis (break bonds by adding H20)
d) Isomerases - yielding isomers
e) Lyases - bond breaking (elimination rxn) other than hydrolysis
f) Ligases - bond formation
An enzyme that hydrolyzes proteins to their constituent amino acids
protease
An enzyme in a snake venom is capable of causing the conversion of lecithins to lysolecithins. To which class does the enzyme belong?
hydrolase
If an enzyme is inhibited non-competitively by the product of a reaction sequence in which the enzyme participates, the enzyme is ___-
allosteric
A loosely bound cofactor that often dissociates from the enzyme active site after product has been formed.
coenzyme
An inhibitor which has a chemical structure similar to that of an enzyme’s normal substrate is likely to act as a ____
competitive inhibitor
The destruction of an enzyme’s catalytic power by changing its molecular structure is __
denaturation
Denatured alcohol refers to ___
ethyl alcohol that has been treated with something to make it unfit to drink.
The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules with the input energy
Anabolism
Set of metabolic pathways that breaks down complex molecules into smaller units.
Said units are either oxidized to release energy or are used in other anabolic reactions
Catabolism
Electron Acceptors:
Define Aerobes
Can grow in the presence of oxygen
Electron Acceptors:
Define Anaerobes
Cannot grow in presence of oxygen.
Uses nitrate and sulfides as electron source
Electron Acceptors:
Define Facultative Aerobes
Can grow in the presence/ absence of oxygen
Electron Acceptors:
Define Microaerophiles
Requires lower levels oxygen
Growth Phases:
Define Lag Phase
-Initial phase (inoculation)
- New environment and now cell division
Growth Phases:
Define Exponential (Log) Phase
-Cells divide via binary fission
-Antibiotics/ Disinfectants applied here
Continuous culture apparatus in which medium is fed at the same rate as microorganism-containing medium is removed; the medium contains one essential nutrients in limiting quantities.
chemostat
A glycoprotein produced in response to the introduction of an antigen; it has the ability to combine with the antigen that stimulated its production, also known as immunoglobulin.
antibody
Growth Phases:
Define Stationary Phase
-Cell growth reaches a plateau (creation = death)
Growth Phases:
Define Death Phase
-Cell death due to low nutrients and high waste products
A structure within or on a cell that performs specific functions and is related
to the cell in a way similar to that of an organ to the body.
organelles
Microorganisms which can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen are ____
facultative organisms
Vitamin Deficiency:
vitamin B3
vitamin B6
*vitamin B3
pellagra
*vitamin B6
inability to digest amino acids
With which vitamin do you associate the disease pellagra?
vitamin B3
Inability to digest amino acids may indicate a deficiency in _____
vitamin B6
A bacterial infection transmitted by contaminated food, water, milk, or shellfish. The causative organism is Salmonella typhi, which is present inhuman feces.
typhoid fever
Allergies, such as hay fever, result from __
an abnormal immunity to a common substance
An infectious agent having a simple acellular organization with a protein coat and a single type of nucleic acid, lacking independent metabolism, and reproducing only within living host cells.
virus
A virus that uses bacteria as its host.
Bacteriophage
A microbial product or its derivative that kills susceptible microorganisms or inhibits their growth.
antibiotic
The process by which all living cells, viable spores, viruses, and viriods are either destroyed or removed from an object or habitat.
sterilization
A preparation of either killed microorganisms; living, weakened (attenuated) microorganisms; or inactivated bacterial toxins (toxoids). It is administered to include development of the immune response and protect the individual against a pathogen or a toxin.
vaccine
The process of heating milk and other liquids to destroy microorganisms that can cause spoilage or disease.
pasteurization
Which enzyme would you expect to find in greater concentration in the stomach of a baby than in an adult’s stomach?
rennin
A complex sulphated polysaccharide, usually extracted from red algae, that is used as a solidifying agent in the preparation of culture media.
agar
Sugars in which the aldehyde group can be oxidized to a carboxylic acid group are called
reducing sugars
Petroleum Products: (# of C’s and Phase)
a) Petroleum Gas
b) Gasoline
c) Kerosene
d) Fuel Oil
e) Lubricating Oil
f) Residue
a) Petroleum Gas: C1 to C4
Gas
b) Gasoline (naphtha): C5 to C12
Liquid
c) Kerosene: C12 to C16
Liquid
d) Fuel Oil: C15 to C18
Liquid
e) Lubricating Oil: C15 to C18
Liquid
f) Residue (asphalt): > C18
Solid
Explain Octane Rating
iso-Octane * 100 / (iso-Octane + Heptane)
A combination of atoms that confers certain chemical and physical properties on a compound is called a ___
functional group
Functional Group
Alcohol
-OH
-ol
Functional Group
Ether
-OR
Functional Group
Aldehyde
-C=OH
-al
Functional Group
Ketone
-C=OR
-one
Functional Group
Carboxylic Acid
-C=OH
-oic acid
Functional Group
Ester
-C=OOR
-oate
Functional Group
Amide
-C=ONH3
-amide
Functional Group
Amine
-NH2
amino-
Functional Group
Haloalkane
-X (Cl, Br, I, F)
halo-
Isomers with same connectivity
Stereoisomers
Achiral isomers AKA Geometric/ Configurational isomers
Cis–trans isomers
Achiral isomers AKA Asymmetric isomers
Optical isomers
Chiral isomers that are not mirror images.
Diastereomers
Explain Plane of Symmetry
Imaginary plane that bisects a molecule into two halves that are mirror images of each other
The toxicity methyl alcohol results from its oxidation by liver enzymes to ____
formaldehyde
Shark liver oil
squalene
Burning polyacrylonitrile (Orion) generates ___
HCN
_______ is a rather disagreeable-smelling liquid used as a preservative for laboratory specimens.
Methanal
In chemical reactions involving alkenes, halogen atoms can replace hydrogen atoms. These reactions are called ____
dehydrogenation
When methane is heated in the absence of air or O2, it breaks up to give carbon and hydrogen. The process is named as ____
Pyrolysis
Crystalline polymer which is used primarily as a film. It is used in flammability-lowering coatings of airplane interiors and photovoltaic module backsheets.
Polyvinyl Fluoride (PVF)
The formation of disulfides through oxidation of two thiols is important for?
maintaining the structure of protein
Common Catalysts for Hydrogenation
Platinum, Palladium, Ruthenium, and Nickel
Carbohydrates that are missing a hydroxy group
Deoxy Sugars
Cellular Organelles:
Replication of DNA takes place in ___
nucleus
Cellular Organelles:
Remove damaged cellular components and some unwanted foreign materials
lysosomes
Cellular Organelles:
Package and process proteins for secretion and delivery to other cellular compartments
Golgi bodies
Cellular Organelles:
Catabolic pathway takes place in ___
mitochondria
