Inorganic Chemistry Flashcards
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Chloroform
CH Cl3
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Phenylalanine
C9 H11 N O2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Arginine
C6 H14 N4 O2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Monazite
PO4SiO4
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Cleveite
UO2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Cupric oleate
C36 H66 Cu O4
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Aquamarine
Be3 Al2 (Si16 O18)
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Emerald
Be3 Al2 Si O6
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Lapis lazuli
Na4 S Si3 Al2 O12
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Prussian Blue
Fe7(CN)18
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Acrylonitrite
C3 H3 N
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Kernite
Na2B4O7 x 4 H2O
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Freon
C Cl2 F2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
DNA
C15 H31 N3 O13 P2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Chlorophyll
C5 H72 O5 N4 Mg
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Chalcopyrite
CuFeS2
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Nitroglycerine
C3 H5 N3 O9
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Olvanil (not in Perry’s)
C26 H43 N O3
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Alar (not in Perry’s)
C6 H12 N2 O3
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Rochelle Salt (not in Perry’s)
K Na C4 H4 O6 * 4H2O
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Taurine (not in Perry’s)
C2H7NO3S
Molecular / Empirical Formulas:
Angelic Acid (not in Perry’s)
C5H8O2
The nonstick coating on cookware is made from what chemical formula?
CF2=CF2
Teflon
Number of double bonds in Geraniol
Two
Elemental Abundance:
Universe
Universe:
H > He > O > Others
Elemental Abundance:
Human Body
Human Body (by mass)
O - 65%
C - 18.5%
H - 9.5%
N - 3.2%
Others…..
Elemental Abundance:
Earth’s Crust
Earth’s Crust (by mass)
O – 47%
Si – 28%
Al – 8%
Fe – 4.5%
Ca – 3.5%
Other – 9%
Petroleum Products: (# of C’s and Phase)
a) Petroleum Gas
b) Gasoline
c) Kerosene
d) Fuel Oil
e) Lubricating Oil
f) Residue
a) Petroleum Gas: C1 to C4
Gas
b) Gasoline (naphtha): C5 to C12
Liquid
c) Kerosene: C12 to C16
Liquid
d) Fuel Oil: C15 to C18
Liquid
e) Lubricating Oil: C15 to C18
Liquid
f) Residue (asphalt): > C18
Solid
Scientists awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 for their work on ozone depletion
Paul Crutzen, Sherwood Roland, Mario Molina
Coined the term ‘radioactivity’
Marie Curie
Definition of Radioactivity
emission of ionizing radiation cause by disintegration of atomic nuclei
First transmutated atom
P-30
Radioisotope for carbon dating
C-14 (Carbon-14)
Carbon-14 half life
5730 years
N0 (Initial amount of C-14)
15.3 disintegrations C-14/(min*g C-12)
Who discovered carbon dating?
Willard Libby
How Carbon-14 dating works?
Use C-12/C-14 ratio
After organism dies, C-12 is constant while C-14 decays to N-15
Father of nuclear chemistry and discovered proof of nuclear fission.
Otto Hann
Chemical “beacon” emitting radiation that signals the presence of the substance.
Radioactive tracer
Radioisotope for uranium-lead dating
U-238 (Uranium-238)
Radioisotope for determining the ages of rocks
U-238 (Uranium-238)
Radioisotope for nuclear power generation
U-235 (Uranium-235)
Radioisotope for measure water content in the body
H-3 (Tritium)
Discovered deuterium
Harold C. Urey
Radioisotope used as pacemaker during heart surgery
Plutonium 238
Radioisotope for cancer treatment
Co-60 (Cobalt-60)
Radioisotope for diagnosis of thyroid effect
I-131 (Iodine-131)
Discovered Iodine-131
Glenn Seaborg
Radioisotope for locating brain tumors
Ar-74 (Arsenic-74)
Radioisotope for pancreas scan
Se-75 (Selenium-75)
Radioisotope for heart scan/ heart function during exercise
Tl-201 (Thallium-201)
Radioisotope for brain, liver, kidney scans
Tc-99m (Tectonium-99m)
Radioisotope for kidney scans
Hg-197 (Mercury-197)
Nuclei of the stable hydrogen isotope deuterium
Deuterons H-2
Heaviest naturally occuring element
Uranium
Radioisotope for eye treatments
Strontium 90
Radioisotope for smoke detectors
Americium 241
Radioactive nuclide often bombarded with the various isotopes of lead to produce most of the new superheavy elements?
Calcium-48 and Nickel-64
Decay product of Radon-222 that produces harmful effects
Polonium-218 and Polonium-214 (Po-218 &Po-214)
Radioisotope used in diagnosing the pathology of the spleen
Chromium-51 (Cr-51)
Radioisotope used as control rods in nuclear reactors. This nucleus absorbs a neutron and then emits an alpha particle.
Boron-10 (B-10)
Radioisotope used in atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively
Hiroshima: Uranium 235
Nagasaki: Platinum 239
Device used to generate electricity through controlled nuclear chain reactions
Nuclear reactors
Device used to induce nuclear transmutations
Particle accelerator
Invented the cyclotron
Ernest O. Lawrence
Across the three most notorious accidents regarding nuclear power plants: Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima, what is the most common failure that led to several environmental problems?
Loss of proper cooling and/or moderator
Which isotope of boron is the most stable: boron-8, boron-10, or
boron-12?
boron-10
check n/p hehe
In which among the following can a Cherenkov radiation be observed?
a) In the water surrounding the core of the nuclear reactor
b) In the mushroom cloud produced after a hydrogen bomb explosion
c) In a particle accelerator after the bombardment of two nuclides
d) In the Sun’s corona during solar eclipse
a) In the water surrounding the core of the nuclear reactor
A noble gas derived from an ore of uranium (cleviete)
helium
The purpose of control rods in a fission reactor is to:
absorb neutrons generated in the fission process.
Electron charged particles cause transparent medium to turn blue
Cherenkov radiation
Self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions
Nuclear chain reaction
Minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
Critical mass
Type of nuclear reaction happening at high temperatures (100 million degC)
Thermonuclear Reactions
Main advantage of nuclear fusion to fission
No radioactive wastes, more energy efficient
Radioisotopes used to trace the path of the atoms of an element in a chemical or biological process.
Tracers
Radioactive application to sterilize food of bacteria
Food irradiation
What was Melvin Calvin was known for his study of?
photosynthesis
Molecular fragments having one or more unpaired electrons; they are usually short-lived and highly reactive
Radicals
The difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons
Mass defect
Chemical for smell and taste
Rhodopsin
gamma-rays < 10-12 m
x-rays 1 nm - 1 pm
ultraviolet 400 nm - 1 nm
visible 750 nm - 400 nm
near-infrared2.5 μm - 750 nm
infrared 1013 - 1014 25 μm - 2.5 μm
microwaves 31011 - 1013 1 mm - 25 μm
radio waves < 31011 > 1 mm
What is the wavelength of the various colors?
*Tip: start from 700, 50 nm each:
R 650-700 nm
O 600-650 nm
Y 550-600 nm
G 500-550 nm
B 450-500 nm
V 390-450 nm
Property that differentiates types electromagnetic radiation
energy
Differentiate Empirical and Molecular Formula
Molecular Formula: actual number of each atoms in a molecule
Empirical Formula: relative amounts of bonds formed in a molecule
Example:
Benzene: MF- C6H6 EF - CH
Acetylene: MF - C2H2 EF - CH
When do certain radioactive decay occur?
a) None - magic # (2, 8, 20, 28, 82, 20, 50, 126)
b) Alpha decay: proton > 83
c) Spontaneous fission: [p > 89 OR m > 200]
c) Beta decay - n/p > 1.0
d) Positron emission - n/p < 1.0 but smaller atoms (p = 1 to 40)
e) Electron capture: n/p < 1.0 but bigger atoms (p = 41 to 82)
f) Gamma Decay: to stabilize metastable nuclides
https://www.geigercounter.org/radioactivity/table-of-nuclides.gif
Describe band of stability
Region in which stable nuclides lie in n vs p plot.
Enumerate Mass and Charge:
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay
Gamma Emission
Positron Emission
Electron Capture
—Alpha Decay (He)
Mass: 4 Charge: +2
—Beta Decay (e- in product)
Mass: 0 Charge: -1
—Positron Emission
Mass: 0 Charge: +1
—Electron Capture (e- in reactant)
Mass: 0 Charge: -1
—Gamma Decay
Mass: 0 Charge: 0
What is the effect of alpha, beta and gamma particles to mass number?
(4,0,0)
Resulted from the decay of a neutron into an electron and a proton
beta decay
Resulted from the conversion of a proton into a neutron
Positron emission and electron capture
Decay that resulted from almost all other types of radioactive decay
Gamma emission
Describe and Rank Penetration and Biological Effects of Alpha, Beta and Gamma
alpha particles: lowest penetration, highest biological effect (only upon ingestion and inhalation)
beta particles: middle penetration and biological effect. Require specialized metal clothing. Very painful
gamma rays: highest penetration, lowest biological effect. External gamma source very dangerous
Why alpha particle have highest biological effect and gamma radiation have highest penetration?
Alpha particles are massive and highly charged, which means that they interact with matter most strongly
Gamma radiation is neutral and massless thus interact least with matter but penetrate most.
in general, the penetrating power is ____ proportional to the mass, charge, and energy of the emission
inversely proportional
By far the most dangerous and harmful form of radiation
Gamma rays
What is the difference between an alpha particle and a proton?
A proton is a positively charged species found in the nucleus of the atom.
An alpha particle is a positively charged helium ion.
What are Transuranium elements
p > 92
- artificial elements synthesized via nuclear transmutation
A parent nuclide may undergo a series of decay steps before a stable daughter nuclide forms.
Decay Series or
Disintegration series
Explain how to determine Decay Series given a nuclide specie.
Main Formula: (M,parent - M,given)/4
Pick which series yields a whole number
Decay Series–Parent–Daughter
Uranium——–U-238 Pb-206
Actinium——–U-235 Pb-207
Thorium———Th-232 Pb-208
Neptunium—–Np-237 Tl-205
Plutonium——Pu-239 U-235
Parent, Last Daughter, Natural?
Uranium series
U-238 to Pb-206, natural
Parent, Last Daughter, Natural?
Actinium series
U-235 to Pb-207, natural
Parent, Last Daughter, Natural?
Thorium series
Th-232 to Pb-208, natural
Parent, Last Daughter, Natural?
Neptunium series
Np-237 to Tl-205, artificial
Parent, Last Daughter, Natural?
Plutonium series
Pu-239 to U-235, artificial
Who discovered positron?
Carl David Anderson
Strong nuclear force
A force of attraction present between nucleons (proton and neutrons) over and extremely short distance of about 10^-15 m
It overcomes electromagnetic forces over short distances
Strong nuclear force
It serves as a nuclear binder of neighboring protons despite the electric repulsion of positive charges but only over short distances
Neutrons
Instrument to measure radiation
Geiger counter and chamber
What does the Geiger counter count and what compound does it use?
a) count alpha particles; with argon
b) count neutrons; with BF3
How is the Sun and Nuclear Fusion connected?
H2 atoms combine into heavier elements
A sequence in which one radioactive nucleus decays to a second, and so forth.
Radioactive Decay Series
Explain Transmutation
-Ernest Rutherford
- The nuclei of an atom will undergo transformation when bombarded with a nuclear species
Nucleus in an excited state with a lifetime of at least one nanosecond
Metastable nucleus
Ionization counter that count particles emitted by radioactive nuclei, consists of a metal tube filled with gas, such as argon.
Geiger counter
Device that detects nuclear radiation from flashes of light generated in a material by the radiation.
scintillation counter
What is a phosphor?
Part of scintillation counter
Substance that emits flashes of light when struck by radiation
What does the scintillation counter count and what chemical does it use?
a) count alpha particles; with zinc sulfide (ZnSO4)
b) count gamma particles; with Sodium Iodide (NaI) w/ Thallium Iodide (Th(I)I2)
Emission spectrum of hydrogen when an electron jumps to or from “n” energy level
Hydrogen Spectral Series
Enumerate Hydrogen Spectral Series
LandBank of the Philippines, BRo Pasabay Ha
(1)Lyman-UV,
(2)Balmer-visible light,
(3)Paschen-infrared,
(4)Brackett,
(5)Pfund,
(6)Humphreys
The fundamental number of hydrogen.
Balmer constant
3645.6 Angstrom
1 Angstrom is equal to __ meters
1 A = 1*10^-10 m
Made a mathematical model explaining the observed frequencies for Hydrogen Spectral Lines
Johannes Balmer
Describe Ground and Excited state
-Ground state – most stable energy level of electron
-Excited state – energy level in which electrons emit photons
Roentgen (R)
The amount of radiation delivered from a radiation source
Defined as one disintegration per second
becquerel (Bq)
Curie (Ci)
-Disintegration rate og 1 gram of Radium
Unit of activity equal to 3.7* 10^10 disintegrations per second.
1 Ci = 3.7* 10^10 Bq
Describe Gy (Gray)
Dosage of radiation that deposits 1 J/kg absorbing material
“Radiation dose with equal biological effect to 1 Gray of gamma radiation”
Dosage of radiation that deposits 0.01 J/kg tissue.
rad
(from Radiation Absorbed Dose)
Relationship of Gray and rad
1 Gy = 100 rad
Unit of radiation dosage used to relate radiation in terms of biological effects.
rem
(roentgen equivalent for man)
Sievert
1 Sv = 100 rem
Relation between rad and rem
rem = rad * RBE
where RBE = relative biological effectiveness
Why most stable radionuclide is approximately at Atomic number=60?
It has highest binding energy per nucleon = most stable
Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) Values
RBE
1 = x-ray, gamma, beta
3 = slow neutron
10 = fast neutron, proton
20 = alpha
Explain Ionizing Radiation
Energetic α, β, and γ particles that dislodged e- from atoms or molecules, forming free radicals, that can be highly damaging to cells
What is Avogadro’s Number?
Amedeo Avogadro
const 24
- number of molecules in 12 grams of Carbon-12
Enumerate Periodic Trends
INCREASE DOWN-LEFT:
Atomic Radius, Reactivity, Metallic Property
DECREASE DOWN-LEFT:
Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, Electronegativity
Explain Atomic Radius
-Average distance between the nucleus and the valence electron
- or! one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms or in a diatomic molecule .
Describe Ionic Radius (with behavior)
-radius of cation or anion
-add electron: increased repulsion enlarges electron cloud
-remove electron: electron cloud shrinks or remain the same
Explain Ionization Energy
-Energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state
-higher ionization energy: harder to form positive ions
Explain Electron Affinity
-Negative of energy change when gaseous element accepts an electron
HOW WELL ATOM CAN KEEP ITS ELECTRONS
-NONMETALS: higher electron affinity: negative ion more stable
-accept electron: negative electron affinity
-emit electron: positive electron affinity
Explain Electronegativity
-Ability of an atom to attract bonding electron towards itself
-high electronegativity atoms tend to attract low electronegativity atoms (eg. Na+ and Cl-)
Measured the Electronegativities of elements
Linus Pauling
(Pauling Scale)
Calculator Constant:
Rydberg constant, R
const 16
Calculator Constant:
Lightspeed, C0
const 28
Calculator Constant:
Plank’s constant, h
const 06
Calculator Constant:
Finite-Structure constant
const 10
How is boiling point of liquids affected by elevation?
-dP/dz = density*g
higher elevation = lower external pressure = lower boiling point
Most effective bulletproof vest
Polyethylene Fiber
or Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Used in bulletproof vest (2nd choice)
Polyamide Fibers
or Kevlar
Used in bulletproof windows.
Polycarbonate Fibers
Used as construction material for radiation protection.
Polymethacrylate Fiber
Material that Impede:
Alpha particles
any material
Material that Impede:
Beta particles
> 0.25 mm aluminum
Material that Impede:
strong Beta Particles
6-12mm Lucite or Plexi Glass
The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant is planned to be retrofitted in hopes of using it for the first time. one point of concern is the material that would be used in the out portions of the room housing the fuel rods. If the radiation coming from the fuel rods would be a strong beta emission, which material should be utilized?
8.0 mm Lucite
Radiation produced after beta particle struck high atomic number materials, such as metals
Bremsstrahlung radiation
Material that Impede:
Fast neutron
water, paraffin (alkane/ sat’d hydrocarbon), concrete
Material that Impede:
Gamma radiation
Lead
Material that Impede:
Slow neutron
Cadmium
Geochronological Methods:
Enumerate Dating Pairs
a) K-40 and Ar-40
b) Th-232 and Pb-208
c) U-238 and Pb-206
“Matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms”
Democritus
Explain Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Matter made of indivisible “atoms”
- Same element = Same properties.
- Compounds = combination of atoms
- Molecules =tightly bound combination of atoms
Law of Conservation of Mass
Antoine Lavoisier
Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, only transformed
Law of Definite Composition
Joseph Louis Proust
regardless of extensive amount, the %composition of compounds is constant
Law of Multiple Proportions
John Dalton
Atoms tend to form bonds in whole number integers
Used to identify molecular mass (actual MW) of compounds.
Platinichloride Method
2B + H2PtCl6 (Chloroplatinic acid) –> B2H2PtCl6 (Platinichloride salt)
Contributions of JJ Thomson
-Discovered electrons by analyzing cathode rays
-Plum pudding model
Cathode Ray Experiment
JJ Thomson
determined the electron mass to charge ratio
Color of light from cathode ray experiment
Green
Named the “electron”
George Stoney
Oil-drop Experiment
Robert Millikan
Determined charge of an electron up to 5 significant sigures
Discovered x-ray
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
Ernest Rutherford Contributions
Discovered the nucleus
Atomic Model
Transmutation
Contribution of James Chadwick
Discovered NEUTRON
-Bombarding beryllium atom with alpha particles to produce a neutral particle with mass slightly greater than proton
Planetary Model
AKA Bohr Model
e- revolves around the nucleus
Catalyzed the discovery of the proton
Geiger-Marsden Experiment or Golden Foil Experiment
Father of Quantum Theory
Max Planck
Differentiate Classical Physics vs Quantum Mechanics
Classical Physics - system may possess infinite energy
Quantum Mechanics - system may only possess only finite and definite amounts of energy
Contribution of Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley
Relationship between atomic number and the frequency of X-Rays generated by bombarding the element with high energy electrons.
Explained the photoelectric effect by treating light as a stream of particles called photons
Einstein
What is the Photoelectric Effect?
The ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal or from another material when light shines on it
Explain Wave-Particle Duality
Light acts as wave when in transit
Light as a particle (photon) when hitting subatomic particles
Explain Work Function
Energy that binds e- to a metal surface
Define Threshold Frequency
Minimum frequency of light required to initiate photoelectric effect
Explain effect of light hitting a metal surface at differing frequencies
Photoelectric effect happens if light frequency is equal (but V=0) or more than threshold frequency (where electron gets knocked out of surface)
What is de Broglie’s Wavelength?
lambda = h/mv
-wavelength of any particle of mass, m
-“matter behaves as though it moves in a wave.”
Electron beams were diffracted by these crystals which proved de Broigle’s idea
NaCl (Sodium chloride) crystals
Common Velocities:
alpha particles
beta particles
gamma rays
alpha particles: 1/20 C
beta particles: 9/10 C
gamma rays: C
Define Internal Energy
cumulative energy that each particle of a system possess
What is the relationship of Internal Energy to Heat and Work?
dU = Q+W
Q and W exists in transit
U is the energy after the transfer of Q and W
Discovered ten transuranium elements
Glenn Seaborg
Arranged elements in triads
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
“Every 8 element has similar properties”
Law of Octaves
John AR Newlands
Father of Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev
What was the basis for Mendeleev classification of elements?
Atomic weight
Differentiate Atomic weight, Formula Weight and Molecular Weight
Atomic: average mass based on abundance of isotopes
AW = sum(x*m,isotope)
Formula: for both ionic and covalent
Molecular: for covalent only
Proposed to arrange the elements by their atomic masses, independent of the work of Dmitri Mendeleev
Lothar Meyer
What kind of elements occupy maximum in the Lothar Meyer curve?
Alkali metals
Most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, waters and atmosphere
Oxygen
Most abundant element in the universe
Hydrogen
Metals that melt on the palm of the hand due to its melting point
Gallium and Cesium
Metal with the highest melting point
Tungsten
Metallic elements are often obtained from ores. Name the metallic element which is produced from the ore Bauxite.
Aluminum
The noble gases have low boiling points because ____
Only weak Van der Waals forces hold the atoms together
Produced urea from ammonium cyanate
Friedrich Wohler
Produced soaps from various fatty acids and alkalis this he was able to demonstrate a chemical change w/o the vital force
Michel Chevreul
Produced acetic acid from carbon disulfide
Adolf Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
Discovered the structure of benzene
Friedrich August Kekule
“Carbon is tetravalent”
Friedrich August Kekule & Archibald Scott
“Carbon is tetrahedral”
Jacobus van’t Hoff
Octet Rule
-Gilbert Lewis
-tendency of atoms to prefer to have 8 electrons in the valance shell
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Werner Heisenberg
“It is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity of an electron or any other particle.”
Contributions of Erwin Schrodinger
Developed a mathematical model for WAVE FUNCTION, for particles exhibiting wave-like properties
Aufbau Principle
Exceptions
- Building-up Principle
- Electron fill lowest energy orbitals first before higher ones
- EXCEPTION: Cr and Cu
Pauli Exclusion Principles
Wolfgang Pauli
“No two electrons have the same values of quantum numbers”
Describe Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic substances
-Paramagnetic substances contain net unpaired spins and are attracted by a magnet.
-Diamagnetic substances do not contain net unpaired spins and are slightly repelled by a magnet.
Enumerate Linus Pauling’s contributions
Postulated important concepts:
-Hybridization
-Molecular Orbital Theory
-Nature of chemical bonds
-Resonance
Describe Resonance, Resonance Hybrid and Contributing Resonance
Resonance: the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent a particular molecule. (eg. Benzene)
Resonance Hybrid: composite of several contributing structures
Contributing Resonance: resonance stuctures that differ in distribution of valance electrons
Represents the various ways a molecule can be drawn
Lewis structures
Represents the true structure of the molecule
Resonance hybrid
Describe Hybrid Orbitals and Hybridization
Hybrid Orbitals: atomic orbitals obtained when two or more nonequivalent orbitals (eg, s and p orbitals becomes sp, sp2, etc) of the same atom combine in preparation for covalent bond formation.
Hybridization: mixing of atomic orbitals in an atom (usually a central atom) to generate a set of hybrid orbitals.
Why radicals are very reactive?
-Radicals tend to UNPREDICTABLY form covalent bond with another radical
Valence Bond Theory
- Bond formation is due to the overlap of two atomic orbitals
- Bond length to minimize the electrons and nuclei repulsion, while satisfying attractive forces.
- Energy released when bond formed, absorbed when bonds break.
Describe Molecular Orbital Theory
-Linus Pauling
- Bonding molecular orbital: region where e- are in between two nuclei
- Antibonding molecular orbital: region where e- are away from either nuclei. Adding e- here will make bonds more unstable.
According to Molecular Orbital Theory, placing electrons in a bonding molecular orbital yields ___ whereas placing electrons in an antibonding molecular orbital results in ___
Bonding: Yields stable covalent bonds
Antibonding: unstable bond
Relate Bond Order, Strength, Energy
Higher order = More bonds = Higher strength = More energy required to break
___ Rule of Multiplicity
-Hund’s Rule
-lowest energy (MOST STABLE) electron arrangement is one with highest number of parallel spin (=up-down spin)
- minimize repulsions of electrons
Hund’s Rule:
Describe Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic substances
Paramagnetic - has unpaired electron spin/s. Attracted by magnets.
Diamagnetic - all electrons are paired. Slightly repelled by magnets.
The region in space where an electron is most likely to be found is called ______
orbital
Define bond order
number of bonds between atoms
VSEPR
- Ronald Nyholm
- Valance Shel Electron Pair Repulsion
- “Atoms achieve geometry that minimizes repulsion between electrons in valence shell”
Fajan’s Rule
- Kazimerz Fajans
- Predicts whether a bond is covalent or ionic based on ionic & atomic radii
- Covalent: high positive charge, small cation, large anion (very polarizable)
- Ionic: low positive charge, large cation (very polarizable), small anion
Predict bond type using electronegativity difference
Non-polar covalent
Polar Covalent
Ionic
Non-polar covalent: Less than 0.5
Polar Covalent: 0.5 to 1.9
Ionic: Greater than 1.9
The compound formed by the combination of positive and negative ions
ionic compound
The most common occurrence of this bond occurs between two nonmetals or between a nonmetal and a metalloid.
covalent bonds
A bond in which electrons are shared between elements having a difference in electronegativity of between 0.5 and ~2.0
polar covalent bond
Covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are not shared equally
polar covalent bond
Covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally
nonpolar covalent bond
Define Bonding electrons
Bonding electrons: shared valance electrons involved in covalent bond formation
Define Nonbonding electrons
Valence electrons not involved in forming covalent bonds; that is, unshared electrons
Electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic compound.
Ionic bond
Energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions
Lattice energy
Measure of the stability of an ionic solid.
Lattice energy
Lattice energy is dependent on ___ and ___
Coulomb’s Law
Pot. Energy (E) = kQ1Q2/r
Force (F) = kQ1Q2/r^2
- Charge of ions (Q1, Q2)
- Distance between ions (r)
Predict Molecular Shapes based on # Regions of Electron Density Around Central Atom:
-Tetrahedral
-Trigonal Planar
-Linear
*Also predict their bond angles
*Tetrahedral: 4, 109.5 deg
*Trigonal Planar: 4, 120 deg
*Linear: 4, 180 deg
Differential Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Metal: solid that is shiny, conducts electricity, is ductile and malleable, and forms alloys. Tend to loose electrons
Nonmetal: does not have metallic properties. Tend to accept electrons
Metalloids: display some properties of metals and nonmetals
Combination of two or more atomic orbitals to form the same number of hybrid orbitals each having the same shape & energy
Hybridization
The pull of electron density through sigma bonds caused by electronegativity differences of atoms
Inductive Effects
Atom or group of atoms responsible for the characteristics of organic compounds.
Functional Groups
Dictate the 3 Water Solubility Rules
- ALWAYS SOLUBLE:
AANG
(Acetate, Ammonium, Nitrates, Group 1 cations) - INSOLUBLE HALIDES:
PuMaSa
(Pb2+, Mercury, Silver) - INSOLUBLE SULFATE: BA-CA SR. PoliceMan Siya (Ba2+, Ca+2, Sr2+, Pb2+, Mercury, Silver) (BaCaSrPMS)
- SOLUBLE OH-:
Group 1 cations, and Ba,2+ - SOLUBLE CARBONATE, PHOSPHATE, CHROMATES, SULFIDES: (CarPho ChromSu):
Group 1 cations, and ammonium (NH4+)
Given combination of solution Ag2CO3 and CaCl2, NaCl2 and PbSO4. Which of the ff. will form precipitate?
Ag2CO3
Classify the following systems as homogeneous, heterogeneous, or colloidal mixtures
(1) Physiological saline solution
(2) Orange juice
(3) A cloud
(4) Wet sand
(5) Suds
(6) Milk
(1) Physiological saline solution : homo
(2) Orange juice : hetero
(3) A cloud : colloidal
(4) Wet sand : hetero
(5) Suds : colloidal
(6) Milk : colloidal
Homogeneous mixtures of
solids
alloys
The chemical nature of an element is independent of _____
the number of neutrons present in it.
Gases diffuse faster compared to liquids because of the reason that the liquid molecules are ____
are held together by stronger inter-molecular forces.
Atoms of the same element, but of different masses are called
isotopes
Describe Kirchhoff’s law
Temperature dependence of a reaction enthalpy
Cp = sum (vCp,m)
dH,r = Cp,rdT
Describe Hess’ Law
“The standard reaction enthalpy is the sum of the values for the individual reactions into which the overall reaction may be divided.”
dH,r = sum (v*dH,f)
Redox reactions in which the compounds or mixtures that are burned are oxidized by oxygen.
Combustion
Breathed oxygen oxidizes carbon containing compounds to produce CO2 and H2O
Respiration
Oxidation of iron
Rusting
Bleaches are very strong ____ agents
Oxidizing agents
Process that converts nitrogen in atmospheric air into ammonia for fertilizers
Haber process
Kb and Kf of Water
Kb = 0.52 C/m
Kf = 1.86 C/m
Kb and Kf of Benzene
Kb = 2.53 C/m
Kf = 5.12 C/m
new values…
Kb = 2.61 C/m
Kf = 5.07 C/m
Kb and Kf of Ethanol
Kb = 1.22 C/m
Kf = 1.99 C/m
Kb and Kf of Acetic Acid
Kb = 2.93 C/m
Kf = 3.90 C/m
Kb and Kf of Cyclohexane
Kb = 2.79 C/m
Kf = 20 C/m
Kb and Kf of Camphor
Kb = ~
Kf = 40 C/m
Constant volume calorimeter
Bomb calorimeter
Constant pressure calorimeter
Adiabatic flame calorimeter
The observation that real gases at the same reduced volume and reduced temperature exert the same reduced pressure
Principle of Corresponding States
Gives the fraction of molecules that have speeds in a specified range.
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of speeds
Known as limiting gas laws (lim P–>0)
Boyle’s and Charles’ laws
To increase the life of an incandescent lamp, it is ______
filled with argon gas
Time to develop antibodies for foreign substance
1 to 2 weeks
If the entropy of a system decreases, the entropy of its surroundings must _____
Must always increase
(for dS,univ>0)
The enzyme capsaicin is commonly found in ____
Capsacium
When does the ff IMFA exist:
Van der Waals
Dipole-Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding
Assume multiple of the given molecule exists
VdW: every time
DD: molecule capable of having + and - poles. Check if forces cancel (eg: CCl4)
H-Bond:
a) one molecule have H atom bounded to N,O,F
b) the other molecule have one lone pair in its N,O,F
What is Polarizability?
Tendency of atom to redistribute its electrons in the presence of a positive pole
Factors that Affect Polarizability
-Atomic Radii - directly proportional. Left Down the PT
-Atomic Mass - if radii not in the choices
-Surface Area - directly proportional
Affected by Polarizability
Directly proportional to: boil pt, melt pt, surface tension, viscosity
Inversely proportional to: vapor pressure
How to compare molecule properties using IMFA?
- Determine strongest IMFA
- If diff strongest: compare using them
- If same strongest: use Polarizability, if failed then compare the remaining IMFA
Entropy
-discovered and explained by Rudolf Clausius
-defined by Boltzmann
Entropy Definition
-defined by Ludwig Boltzmann
-thermodynamics property that measures the number of meta-states of system energy
-used to determine spontaneity of process using the UNIVERSE
Process that Increase Entropy
INCREASED TOTAL ENERGY
-Increase Temperature
INCREASES MOBILITY
-Phase Transition (to less dense phase)
-Dissolution of solute
-dn=(c+d)-(a+b) : change in moles of gas after reaction
-Mixing of gasses: mix will increase the space each species can occupy
Gibbs Free Energy
G=H-TS
-Josiah Willard Gibbs
-used to determine spontaneity of process using SYSTEM ALONE
Define the Colligative Propeties
Colligative Props: change in solvent properties depending only on solution concentration and solvent nature
BPE/FPD: increase/decrease in BP/FP
Osmosis: selective passage of solvent molecules through porous membrane from dilute to more concentration part. Levels of each compartment will be unequal
Explain Osmotic pressure
External pressure applied to the more concentrated solution to stop the passage of solvent molecules across a semipermeable membrane.
- external pressure to equal the levels of each compartment
When we apply pressures greater than the osmotic pressure to the more concentrated solution, solvent flows from the more dilute solution to the more concentrated solution
reverse osmosis
Describe Effusion and Graham’s Law
-Thomas Graham
-Effusion: process by which a gas under pressure escapes from one compartment to another through a small opening
- rate inversely prop. to sqrt(MW)
Explain Kinetic Molecular Theory
- KE proportional to Temp
- Perfectly elastic collisions (momentum conserved).
- IMFA negligible
- Gas molecules negligible compared to distances between other molecules
- Pressure is from collision of gas molecules to container walls
Following are pH ranges for several human biological materials. From the pH at the midpoint of each range, calculate the corresponding [H3O -]. Which materials are acidic?
(1) Milk, pH 6.6–7.6
(2) Gastric contents, pH 1.0–3.0
(3) Spinal fluid, pH 7.3–7.5
(4) Saliva, pH 6.5–7.5
(5) Urine, pH 4.8–8.4
(6) Blood plasma, pH 7.35–7.45
(7) Feces, pH 4.6–8.4
(8) Bile, pH 6.8–7.0
Acidic materials (pH <7.0 based on midpoint):
(2) Gastric contents: pH=2
(5) Urine: pH=6.6
(7) Feces: pH=6.5
(8) Bile: pH=6.9
Water on heating from 1 to 4°C
contracts
This law explains why aerosol cans carry the warning “Do not
incinerate”.
Gay-Lussac Law
Can —> involves pressure
Incinerate –> involves temperature
Laughing Gas
NO, Nitric Oxide
Important element to prevent tooth decay
Fluoride
The instrument used to measure blood pressure
sphygmomanometer
Binds to hemoglobin so that O2 cannot be taken up to the lungs
CO, carbon monoxide
Aims to imitate the same filtration function as kidneys
Hemodialysis
Happens for diver when they ascend too rapidly, dissolved N2 creates bubble
Nitrogen Narcosis
pH of normal rain and acid acid
normal rain: 5 to 5.5
acid rain: 4.0
Typical human blood pH range
7.35 to 7.45
Typical pH of gastric juices
1.0 - 2.0
Condition when blood pH is below 7.35 to 7.45 that leads to depression of the nervous system.
Acidosis
Condition when blood pH is higher than 7.45 that leads to overstimulation of the nervous
system, muscle cramps, dizziness, and convulsions.
Alkalosis
Scientists that theorized that CFCs destroy the atmospheric ozone
Paul Crutzen, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina
What happened when we lower our diaphragm during breathing?
BOYLE’S LAW
*Lower Diaphragm: Increased volume = Lower pressure = Air tends to enter the lungs
*Raise Diaphragm: decreased volume = increased pressure = exhale
Also known as Boyle’s Law
Mariotte’s Law
Which gas law explains hot air balloon? How?
CHARLES’ LAW
*Increased Temp = Increased volume = Decreased air density = LIFT!
What is Proof? (alcohol concentration)
Proof = 2* (%v/v alcohol content)
Invented Vulcanized Rubber
Charles Goodyear
Sound travels faster during the day or night?
Night
Number of Carbon atoms in Olvanil
26
Primary use of ethylene
ripening of fruits
What is Ozoloysis
Alkenes, alkynes and azo compounds are cleaved with ozone
Solid Part of the Earth
Lithosphere
What is Nujol Mull?
A way to obtain infrared spectra of solids
Discovered zeolites
Cronstedt
The Nobel Prize for radioactivity discovery was shared between Curie and Roentgen. Who coined the word “Serendipity” in 1754?
Horace Walpole
Contribution of Adolf von Baeyer
Phenolphthalein and Barbituric Acid
Discovered EDTA
Ferdinand Munz
Use of EDTA
Bind metal ions in Chelation therapy
Treating Hg and Pb poisoning
Process on how to differentiate alkane, alkenes and alkynes
Reaction with Br2
Other name for taurine
2-AminoEthylSulfonic Acid
2-AminoEthane Sulfonic Acid
_____ is an organic compound that is widely distributed in animal tissues. It is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine, and accounts for up to 0.1% of total human body weight. It was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.
Taurine or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid
Component of sunblock that helps reflect light
Zinc Oxide
Temperature of the moon at day and night
Day: 127C
Night: -173C
What makes plastics or polymers biodegradable?
Hydrophilicity
*Shale oil is a high-quality ______ that lies between layers of shale rock, impermeable mudstone, or siltstone. Oil companies produce shale oil by fracturing the layers of rock that contain the layers of oil.
*____ is rock suffused with kerogen, a precursor to oil. In some cases, shale oil describes oil that’s been converted from kerogen in shale rocks.
crude oil, oil shale
Brix scale is the hydrometer scale for ______
sugar solution
Is a brand of mineral oil by Plough, Inc. CAS number 8012-95-1, and density 0.838 g/mL at 25 C, used in IR spectroscopy. It is a heavy paraffin oil so it is chemically inert and has a relatively uncomplicated IR spectrum, with major peaks between 2950-2800, 1465-1450, and 1360-1300 cm^-1.
Nujol Mull
Liquid part of the blood that remains after removal of the cellular particulates and fibrinogen.
Blood serum
Most oxidized form of nitrogen
Nitrates
The distance of the Earth to the most remote normal galaxy is calculated to be:
2x10^22 m
(yung choice puro 2)
Which do float?
balsa wood
ethylene glycol
table salt
ethanol
balsa wood
Which is a synthetic dye?
alizatrin
melanin
carotenoid
Carotenois
What is the polymer used for printing and coating?
Acrylic and Styrene
Acrylic Emulsion
Example of pseudo plastic fluid
apple sauce
rubber latex
tap water
sewage sludge
apple sauce
Product of distillation of coal tar
phenol
What is the chemical formula and molesular weight of 11-tetradecenyl acetate?
C16 H30 O2
What is the common contaminant in the BTEX process?
benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene
Chouse the common method in the removal of fine particle in how airstream common in cement production
Venturi Scrubber
What is the meathod that Wohler do to break the vital force theory in nature?
Heating of NH4CL with AgCN to from Urea
What happens to the pH of carbonated brinks if it open in atmospheric condition?
Increase (more basic)
Range of melting point of fatty acids
(Saturated, Unsaturated
Saturated Fatty Acids: 100-110C
Unsaturated: 70-85C
What is the cost common form of nitro-glycerol?
Nitroglycerin
In stem cell studies, a chemical known as telomeres is attached to the chromosome to promote longer life. How would you apply this as a chemical engineering in the field of agriculture and food?
Geneticallyu enhance plants to prolong shelf life
Liquid nitrogen is placed in an Erlenmeyer flask. Hardboiled egg is then place on top of the opening, what will happen?
Egg will get sucked in
Note: the liquid nitrogen being extremely cold would lower the pressure in the Erlenmeyer, creating a vacuum for the egg to be suctioned in.
You are an environmental engineer sent to a place with the cholera epidemic. What is the best thing to do?
Treat water supply
When will a pine tree grow in Alaska?
Not in a million years
