NRS501 Revision PP Flashcards
What is the term for the rate of disease in a population?
Morbidity
What is the term for a disease persisting for a long time or constantly reoccurring?
Chronic
What is the term for a disease of which a cause is unknown?
Idiopathic
What is the term for a disease or illness caused by medical treatment?
Iatrogenic
What is the term for a decrease in the size of cells?
Atrophy
What is coronavirus an example of?
Pandemic
A cell of one type is changed for a cell of another type is known as?
Metaplasia
Cell death caused by injury resulting in swelling, rupture of the cell wall and leakage of cellular components is known as?
Necrosis
What type of cellular signalling uses hormones as the cellular signal?
Endocrine
Cellular communication and subsequent coordination of the body processes is known as?
Integration
What is the main role of the T-helper cell?
To activate specific B-cells to respond to infection and produce antibodies
Which cell undertakes ‘cloning’ to fight infections
B Cells
What do B-Cells do?
Attack invaders outside the cells
What do T-Cells do?
Attack infected cells
What is the role of the neutrophil?
Undertakes phagocytosis to remove pathogens
What is the role of the mast cell?
Release histamine as part of the inflammatory responses
What is the role of the dendritic cell?
Antigen presentation to stimulate the adaptive immune response
What is the role of the macrophage?
Mature monocytes; undertake phagocytosis and release cytokines to stimulate ongoing immune response
What is the role of the monocyte?
A naive immune cell which can turn into other types of immune cell required-macrophages
What are the 2 conditions of COPD?
Emphysema and Chronic Bronchitis
What is emphysema?
Destruction of the alveoli – loss of robust surface area for gas exchange, loss of surfactant to support gas exchange, loss of muscular surface prevents movement of air in the alveoli
What is chronic bronchitis?
Bronchospasm, bronchoconstriction and mucous production results in obstruction/resistant to airflow
What are the typical symptoms of an asthma exacerbation?
Wheeze, Cough, Chest tightness, Breathlessness
Which terms are examples of microvascular complications of Diabetes?
Retinopathy, Neuropathy, Nephropathy
What is the process of vomiting?
Noxious stimuli, Vomiting centre stimulates motor, parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems, Pre-ejection, Ejection
Where is the vomiting centre found?
Medulla
What is slow transit constipation?
Impaired colon activity results in infrequent bowel movement, straining and some abdominal distention
What is normal transit constipation?
Regular stool movement but unable to evacuate stool from the rectum normally associated with diet, lack of exercise etc
What is outlet dysfunction?
Poor function of the pelvic floor or anal sphincter
How is pain transmitted?
Nociception, Transmission, Perception, Modulation
What role does Substance P have in pain?
Neurotransmitter used in transmission across the dorsal horn (nociceptors to relay neurones)
What role does Glutamate have in pain?
Neurotransmitter used in transmission across the dorsal horn (nociceptors to relay neurones)
What role does Prostaglandins have in pain?
Stimulate nociceptors (inflammatory response damage) to start the ascending pathway of pain
What role does Serotonin have in pain?
Can block the transmission of C-fibres in descending modulation closing the pain gate
How many hallmarks of cancer are there?
- Unlimited proliferation
- Evading growth suppressors
- Resistant to cell death apoptosis
- Replicative immortality
- Angiogenesis
- Invasion and metastasis
What is a stroke?
An interruption of blood supply to an area of the brain causing motor, sensory or behavioural signs
Characterised by a SUDDEN onset of symptoms
Stroke risk factors
Age
Hypertension
Smoker – or exposed to tobacco
Overweight
Diabetes
High cholesterol
Heart disease (especially AF – 5X greater risk)
Family history
Sedentary lifestyle
Name 4 different types of dementia and note which is the most common:
Alzheimer’s Disease 60% +
Vascular Dementia 20% -
Lewy Body Dementia 15% -
Frontotemporal Dementia 5%
What is the cause of a febrile seizure?
Inflammatory Response
What are the symptoms of Bulimia Nervosa?
Subject loss of control of binge eating
Compensatory behaviours to prevent weight gain
Preoccupation with body weight
List at least 4 signs/symptoms associated with depression:
Disturbed sleep, disturbed appetite
Guilt or low self worth, hopelessness
Decreased libido
Mood variation throughout the day
Poor concentration
Suicidal thoughts, plans or acts
Loss of confidence
Fatigue
Agitation or slowing of speech
What happens during a tonic-clonic seizure?
Two stages:
1: ‘Tonic Stage’: The patient looses consciousness, body goes stiff, and will fall to the floor if standing upright
2: Clonic Stage: Rapid violent jerking of the limbs, incontinence, biting of the tongue/cheek, signs of hypoxia
Patients may be “post-ictal” and need assessment/monitoring as unconscious post-seizure
Patient is in ‘status epilepticus’ if seizures lasting more than 5 minutes OR 3 seizures without recovery
The congenital heart defect - VSD – Ventricular septal defect is what?
An incomplete development of the ventricular septum resulting in a hole and mixing of oxygen and deoxygenated blood
The congenital heart defect - Transposition of the great arteries is what?
Reversal of the aorta and the pulmonary vein
3 differences between AKI and CKD
Acute
- sudden onset
- rapid reduction in urine output
- usually reversible
- tubular cell death and regeneration
Chronic
- progressive
- not reversible
- nephron loss
The congenital heart defect - Tetralogy of Fallot is what?
Pulmonary valve stenosis, ventricular septal defect, overriding aorta and right ventricular hypertrophy
What 3 characteristics define asthma?
- Airflow limitation which is normally reversible
- Airway hyper-responsiveness to various stimuli resulting in bronchospasm as the stimuli cause smooth muscle to contract
- Chronic inflammation of the bronchi resulting in the long-term airway swelling and mucous production that cause the symptoms of asthma.
What is Type 1 hypoxaemic respiratory failure?
Failure of respiration (gas exchange function of the lung) leading to hypoxaemia with normal or low carbon dioxide levels
What is Type 2 hypercapnic/hypoxaemic respiratory failure?
Failure of ventilation leading to hypercapnia and hypoxaemia
What is the main infective cause of bronchiolitis?
Respiratory Syncytial Virus infection
What are the identifiable symptoms & progress of bronchiolitis?
Start as a coryza and other cold/flu upper respiratory infection symptoms eg: cough, fever etc
Worsening symptoms occur 2-3 days later with wheeze, cough, fever, signs of respiratory distress
What age group does bronchiolitis affect?
Occurs <2 years old
The build-up of fatty plaques within the wall of arteries is known as?
Atherosclerosis
Stages of atherosclerosis
Lipid phase- development of ‘fatty streaks’
Fibrous phase- hardening of the atheromatous plaque
Plaque rupture- thrombus formation
What are Non-Epileptic Seizures?
Organic (physical cause) or psychogenic (psychological cause) not as a result of erratic electrical conductivity
What is a Generalised Seizure?
Immediate onset of widespread electrical activity across the whole brain
What is a Focal Seizure (aka ‘Partial)?
Erratic electrical activity starts in a well-defined area of the brain.
Explain the RAAS system
When a patient becomes hypotensive, RENIN is released from the kidney. This travels to the liver where it convertsANGIOTENSINOGEN to make ANGIOTENSIN I. This then travels to the lung where ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYMES is used to convert ANGIOTENSION I to ANGIOTENSIN II and results in VASOCONSTRICTION
What are the 3 theories of depression?
Monoamine Theory, Neuroendocrine Regulation, Cognitive Theory
What is Monoamine Theory?
Monoamine = Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline. Reduction in the amount of these neurotransmitters
What is Neuroendocrine Regulation?
An increase in cortisol levels (stress hormone) results in reduced receptor sensitivity and overproduction of cortisol – resulting in reduced cytokine action in the brain resulting in less repair of neurone damage
What is cognitive theory?
A negative trend in thinking results in an increased likelihood of developing and maintaining depression
What are the 3 stages of acute inflammation?
- Release of inflammatory mediators
- Vascular response
- Cellular response
What happens in the first stage of acute inflammation?
Cell-derived caused by tissue damage
- Histamine, Prostaglandins, Cytokines
Plasma-derived caused by cell-derived signalling
- Complement, Clotting Factors, Bradykinins
What happens in the second stage of acute inflammation?
Vasodilation occurs, and increased blood vessel permeability
What happens in the third stage of acute inflammation?
Links to the immune system, Phagocytosis
What are the three acute coronary syndromes?
- Unstable angina
- NSTEMI
- STEMI
What happens in Unstable angina?
– ECG changes present- T wave may be flat or inverted; ST may be depressed; Troponin T levels Norm
What happens in NSTEMI?
– ECG changes present- T wave inverted but ST is not elevated; Troponin T levels Elevated
What happens in STEMI?
– ECG changes present- ST elevations on 12 Lead ECG; Troponin T levels Elevated
Explain the underlying pathophysiology of reduced oxygen levels as a result of sepsis
- An imbalance between oxygen demand by the tissues and oxygen supply
- Compromised oxygen delivery due to a combination of reduced blood pressure and flow + tissue oedema + abnormal flow of blood through capillary bed
- Increased oxygen demand by the cells due to hypermetabolic state
