Nick's Foundation block Flashcards
What does haematoxylin bind to?
Acidic or anionic structures
What are the 3 types of granulocytes?
Basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
What is an immature RBC called?
Reticulocyte
What is the average lifespan of a platelet cell?
8-10 days
What type of WBC is this?
Basophil
What shape is the nucleus of a monocyte?
Kidney /bean shaped or eccentric oval
What type of WBC is this?
Neutrophil
List the 4 main function of connective tissue
Structural support
Metabolic support
Immune defence
Tissue repair
Name 7 locations where simple columnar, non-ciliated epithelial cells are found
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Gall bladder
Bile ducts
Endocervix
Endometrium
Name 2 locations where simple columnar, ciliated epithelial cells are found
Bronchioles
Fallopian tube
What are the 7 causes of celll injury?
Hypoxia
Chemicals and drugs
Micro-organisms
Metabolic
Immune
Nutritional
Genetic
Describe 3 steps in fibrinoid necrosis
1 Deposited immune cells in blood vessels
2 Fibrin leakage
3 Necrosis
Define metastatic calcification
Abnormal calcium deposits due to hypercalcaemia.
What type of tissue is this?
Smooth muscle
Name the 5 isotypes of Ig and what each is specialised for.
IgM - First responder. Activates classical pathway of complement cascade.
IgA - present in mucosa. Neutralises
IgG - Most common. Neutralises and opsonises. Antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC); flag for NK cells
IgE - Elevated in parasitic infections and allergy. Degranulation.
IgD - rarest. Expressed on B cells
Which germ layer is muscle derived from?
Mesoderm
What type of ttissue is this?
Skeletal muscle
What colour does eosin stain?
Pink/orange
Which WBC has a kidney-shaped nucleus?
Basophils OR Monocytes
Which WBC has a bilobed nucleus?
Eosinophils and basophils
Which three substances mediate vasodilation in inflammation?
Histamine, NO, prostaglandin PGE2
What is the function of glycoproteins of the basemenbt membrane?
They anchor integrins of epithelial cells to ECM of the underlying connective tissue
What is the structure of elastin?
Made of an elastin core surrounded by network of fibrilin myofibrils
Name these ligaments
A Supraspinous ligament
B Ligamentum flavum
C Posterior longitudinal ligament
D Anterior longitudinal ligament
What are the 4 funcitons of surface epitheliia?
Protection
Selective barrier
Absorption
Secretion
Name these ligaments
A Supraspinous ligament
B Ligamentum flavum
C Posterior longitudinal ligament
D Anterior longitudinal ligament
What type of fibres is elastin made of?
Thin and branched
An acidophilic tissue will have an affinity for which dye?
Eosin
Name 6 locations where stratified squamous epithelium is found
Skin (keratinised)
Oral cavity
Oesophagus
Vagina
Anus
Ectocervix
Name 2 types of mononuclear monocyte
Lymphocyte and monocyte
What type of WBC is this?
Eosinophil
Define autolysis
Why is it relevant to a pathologist?
How is it remedied?
When cells are removed from body, they start to break down almost immediately (autolysis).
This would make it hard for pathologist to know whether the tissue was pathological before biopsy.
Treat with formalin to fix the tissue and prevent autolysis; or cool tissue to slow autolysis
What is type III collagen also known as?
Reticulin
What type of WBC is this?
Basophil
Which two forces (and in which direction) are responsible for oedema in inflammation?
1 Increased hydrostatic pressure
2 Decreased coloidal osmotic pressure
Define nucleocapsid
The capsid most closely associated with the viral nucleic acid.
Nucleic acid + capsid
What are transitional epithelia specialised for?
Stretch/elasticity
List 5 features of slow twitch fibres (Type I)
1 for running a marathon;
2 red because of many mitochondria;
3 aerobic respiration;
4 resist fatigue;
5 low tension developed.
What is the size of a virus?
0.02 - 0.04 um
= 20 - 40 nm
What is the function of myoepithelial cells?
surround some exocrine glands to squeeze out contents
What type of WBC is this?
Monocyte
Explain the physiologic basis of muscle contraction
Nerve impulse depolarises cell membrane.
T tubules conduct AP from membrane to SR.
AP causes SR to release Ca2+
Actin and myosin detach and reattach to each other, pulling Z discs closer together to shorten sarcomere.
What colour will an eosinophilic structure stain?
Pink/orange
What is the main function of elastin and give 3 examples of tissue it is found in
Provides recoil to certain tissues, esp skin, lungs and large arteries such as aorta
Which germ layer(s) is/are epithelia derived from?
All 3 (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm)
Which germ layer(s) is/are connective tissue derived from?
Mesoderm
What is the function of pericytes?
wrap around capillaries to regulate blood flow
What type of tissue is this?
Cardiac muscle
What is the maximum resolving power of a light microscope and of an electron microscope?
- 2 um
- 2 nm
What are the 3 features of dysentery?
Blood, pus and mucus in stool
A Levator scapulae
B Trapezius
C Rhomboid
D Latisimus dorsi
How many genes in the human genome?
21,000 to 25,000
CD4+ T cells are also known as what type of T cell?
Helper T cells
List 5 features of fast twitch (Type IIb) fibres
1 for sprinting/lifting weights;
2 white because few mitochondria;
3 anaerobic respiration;
4 fatigable;
5 high tension developed
Where is ciliated, pseudocstratified columnar epithelium found?
Respiratory tract
Where is bradykinin derived from?
Plasma proteins
What is the main function of collagen?
Provides tensile strength
Transaminases in the blood indicates what?
Liver damage
What are the 3 causes of hypoxia?
1 ischaemic,
1 failure of gas exchange at lung,
2 failure of blood carrying O2
Fatty necrosis is classically seen in which condition?
Acute pancreatitis
Where is type 4 collagen found?
Basement membrane
What are the 2 main differences between the gram positive and the gram negative bacterial cell wall?
Gram negative bacteria have a smaller/thinner peptidoglycan layer and they have an additional outer/superficial plasma membrane.
What is the difference between exudate and transudate?
What is the key pathophysiological reason for this difference?
Transudate is buidup of fluid in interstital compartment, whereas exudate is also rich in proteins and cells.
Key difference is that exudate is formed when interendothelial gaps develop and allow extravasation of proteins
What type of bacteria is this?
Spirochete
What type of cell is this?
Lymphocyte
What is the funciton of the bacterial flagella?
Locomotion
What are parenchymal cells of an organ?
The functional cells in an organ
A raised neutrophil count indicates what?
acute inflammation, especially seen in bacterial infections
What type of bacteria is this?
Diplococci
What is the diameter of a platelet cell?
2-4 um
Cerebral infarction typically shows which type of necrosis?
Liqueficative
Where will lymph from the back drain to?
Axillary lymph nodes
What are simple squamous epithelia specialised for?
Diffusion and protection from abrasion
Thoracic vertebrae: in what plane are their articular facets and what movement does this permit?
Coronal
Rotation in coronal plane
A Annulus fibrosus
B Nucleus pulposus
Caseouos necrosis is classically seen in which disease?
Tuberculosis
List 4 examples of PAMPs
Lipopolysaccharide
Flagellin
Peptidoglycan
Viral DNA
What colour does Haematoxylin stain?
Blue
Which are the only cells that can produce antibodies?
B cells/plasma cells
Lumbar vertebrae: in what plane are their articular facets and what movement does this permit?
Sagittal
Flexion/extension
What are the 3 most common sites of microbe entry?
The GI tract, skin and respiratory tracts
Which 3 criteria are used to define a virus family?
1 Kind of nucleic acid (ss or ds RNA or DNA)
2 Strategy of replication
3 Morphology of the virion (symmetry of capsid, naked vs enveloped)
A = Z disc
B = myosin = thick filament
C = actin = thin filament
D = Sarcomere
What type of WBC is this?
Monocyte
What type of WBC is this?
Neutrophil
Define metaplasia
One differentiated cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is reversibly replaced with another cell type
On what basis did Woese classify all living things?
Ribosomal RNA
Name 5 features of the bacterial genome that are different from the human genome
1) A single chromosome
2) in a nucleoid with no nuclear membrane
3) single double-stranded DNA that is looped and supercoiled,
4) No introns or exons;
5) bacteria may also have plasmids;
Define dystrophic calcification and give an example
Abornal calcium depostits dye to damaged or necrotic tissue that has not been completely removed (eg atherosclerotic plaques)
What type of tissue is this?
Cardiac muscle
In which 4 locations are simple squamous epithelia found?
Endothelium,
mesothelium,
alveoli,
glomerulus
What is the function of microvilli?
Increase surface area for absorption and secretion
Elevated CRP levels indicates what?
What does CRP stand for?
Acute inflammation
C reactive protein
Define virion
The virus particle
What is the diametre of an RBC?
7.2 microns
What type of tissue is this?
Cardiac muscle
What is involution?
A decrease in cell number due to reduced functional demand
What does a high lymphocyte count indicate?
Viral infection
What is the lifespan of an RBC?
120 days
Explain the 3 levels of structure in a peripheral nerve
1 Single axon ( often wrapped in myelin) wrapped in endoneurium.
2 Bundle of axons form a fascicle, surrounded by perineurium.
3 Bundle of fascicles form a peripheral nerve. Nerve surrounded by epineurium.
What type of bacteria is this?
Staphylococci
What are the functions of histamine in inflammation?
1 Vasodilation
2 Endothelial contraction –> increased permeability of microcirculation
Define partial agonist
A drug that fails to produce maximal effects even when all receptors are bound by the drug
CD8+ T cells are also known as what type of T cell?
Cytotoxic T cells
What are the 8 cardinal features of pain?
Site
Quality
Severity
Time course
Context
Relieving factors
Aggravating factors
Associated features
What are the 2 main functions of the bacterial cell wall?
1) Prevents osmotic lysis
2) Gives bacteria its shape
What is the structure of collagen?
Formed by a triple helix of polypeptides called alpha chains
What type of tissue is this?
Cardiac muscle
What is the gold standard for identifying a virus?
VIral cultivation
Give 2 examples of dense regular connective tissue
Tendons and ligaments
What are the three essential features of a receptor?
1 A biological macromolecule or complex …
2 That binds to another molecule ….
3 and affects activity within a cell
Define potency
Potency is the amount of drug required to produce 50% of the maximal response the drug is capable of inducing
What are the 3 main components of the bacterial peptidoglycan cell wall?
N-acetyl-glucosamine, N-acetyl-muramic acid and a short peptide chain
Define PAMPs
Molecular patterns found on micro-organisms, but not humans, that are recognised as non-self by cells of the innate immune system
What are simple columnar epithelia specialised for?
secretion and absorption
Define the viral envelope
Lipid membrane surrounding either the capsid or nucleocapsid that is formed by the host cells’ membrane (not present in all viruses)
Contains virus-encoded glycoproteins
Between which 2 layers is the basement membrane found?
Epithelium and underlying connective tissue
Describe the 4 steps in the mechanism of cell wall damage activating inflammation
1 Cell membrane damage activates phospholipase A2
2 Membrane lipids –> arachadonic acid
3 AA –> PG
4 PG –> leukotrienes
What shape is a bacillus bacteria?
Rod
Which structures do posterior rami innervate?
Superficial/intrinsic back muscles
Overlying skin of the back
Facet joints
Define cellulitis
An infection of the deep layers of the skin and subcutaneous tissues by bacteria
Pink on an H and E slide indicates what kind of compound?
Cationic and eosinophilic
What colour will an acidophilic structure bind?
Pink/orange
Define abscess
A localised collection of pus and necrotic tissue surrounded by inflamed tissues
What type of blood cell is this?
Megakaryocyte
What type of tissue is this?
Skeletal muscle
Describe the mechanism of exudate formation
1 Vasodilation
2 Increased hydrostative pressure in capillary
3 Increased permeability of capillary wall due to contaction or retraction of endothelial cells
4 Escape of protein- and cell-rich fluid into interstitial comparment
5 Decrease in colloidal osmotic pressure
What type of WBC is this?
Neutrophil
Define efficacy
- Efficacy is the probability of a drug activating a receptor once bound
- Aka the degree to which a drug is able to produce maximal effects
Define pharmacokinetics
What the body does to the drug
What does Increased eosinophils indicate?
allergy and parasitic infections
In immunology, what does PRR stand for?
Pattern recognition receptor
What are the 3 types of fibre in connective tissue?
Collagen
Elastin
Reticulin
Name these structures
A Vertebral body
B Lamina
C Spinous process
D Transverse process
E Pedicle
What type of cell is this?
Describe 3 features that support your answer
Skeletal muscle
Striated
Multi nucleate
Peripheral nuclei
What are the 2 primary lymphoid organs?
Bone marrow and thymus
What is the function of myofibroblasts?
pull together damaged connective tissue to promote wound healing.
Blue on an H and E slide indicates what kind of compound?
Acidic or anionic
What is the function of reticulin?
It creates a supportive network for delicate organs such as the liver
List the 3 secondary lymphoid organs
Spleen
Lymph nodes
Mucosal associated lymphatic tissue
Define eedema.
Excessive fluid in interstitial compartment or body cavities
What do naked viruses lack?
An envelope
What are the 4 main functions of the basement membrane?
1) controls epithelial growth
2) selectively permeable barrier to nutrients
3) structural support
4) links epithelium to underlying tissue
Which germ layer(s) is/are neurones derived from?
Ectoderm
What type of cell is this?
Neutrophil
What is the function of collagen type VII
Links basement membrane to underlying connective tissue
What are 3 functions of the bacterial capsule?
increases virulence
protects against phagocytosis
prevents dehydration..
Define pharmacodynamics
What the drug does to the body
What type of collagen is basement membrane predominantly made of?
Type IV collagen
What type of WBC is this?
Eosinophil
What type of bacteria is this?
Streptococci
What does DAMPs stand for?
Damage associated molecular patterns
What is the funciton of epithelial cilia?
Rhythmic beating for movement of eg mucus out of respiratory tract or ovum along fallopian tube
How long after entering tissue until neutrophils die?
Within hours
Which vitamin is required for collagen synthesis?
Vitamin C
List 3 places where type 1 collagen is found
Bone, tendons and ligaments
What is the size of a bacterium?
1-2 um
List 7 examples of permanent resident cells in connective tissue
Fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes
What are stromal cells?
Supportive cells in an organ
Define atrophy
A reduction in tissue or organ size due to decrease in cell size and number and thus decreased metabolic activity
A decrease in cell number due to reduced functional demand is termed what?
Involution
In inflammation, which 3 substances causes an increase in inter-endotheilal gaps?
Histamine, bradykinin and leukotrines
Define hyperplasia
Increase in cell number resulting in increased organ size/mass
List 5 ways in which necrosis and apoptosis differ
Necrosis Apoptosis
Reversibility Yes, if early No
**Inflammation ** Yes Minimal
**Area **Large Small # cells
**Cell swelling ** Yes No
Cell membrane Disrupted Intact
What does eosin bind to?
Cationic tissue (ie positively charged)
In the peptidoglycan wall of the bacterium, how are the peptide chains connected?
Pentapeptide bridges
What is the key feature of each of the 3 muscle types on light microscopy of a longitudinal section?
1 Skeletal = single nucleus at periphery of cell
2 Cardiac = central nuclei in branching fibres
3 Smooth = central elongated nuclei
What type of WBC is this?
Monocyte
A basophilic tissue will have an affinity for which dye?
Haematoxylin
What colour will a basophilic structure stain?
Blue
Where is type II collagen found?
cartilage
Describe laminar blood flow and the relative positions of WBCs, platelets and RBCs
Larger components of blood are in centre of lumen, thus WBC > RBC > platelets from centre to periphery.
Which WBC has a multil-lobed nucleus?
Neutrophils
What does PAMPS stand for?
Pathogen associated molecular patterns
Describe 3 steps in the pathophysiology of stasis in inflammation
1 Plasma fluid leaves vascular circulation, slowing blood flow
2 RBCs conglomerate
3 Laminar flow is altered and WBCs are marginated
What groups did Woese divide all living things into?
Eukarya, archaea and bacteria.
At what vertebral level does the spinal cord stop?
L1/L2
List the 5 commonest patterns of necrosis
Coagulative
Liquefecation
Casseous
Fat necrosis
Fibrinoid
Define hypertrophy
Increase in cell size, organ size and functional activity
Where is histamine derived from?
Mast cells in pre-formed granules
In which two locations are simple cuboidal epithelia found?
Thyroid follicles and renal tubules
What type of WBC is this?
Monocyte
What is the function of desmosomes/adherens junctions between epithelial cells?
Strong mechanical attachments between cells, linking their cytoskeletons
Which is the largest WBC?
Monocyte
What type of WBC is this?
Basophil
What type of bacteria is this?
Diplobacillus
What are the 3 main groups of plasma proteins?
Globulins, albumin and coagulants
Name the 6 types of atypical connective tissue
Bone.
Cartilage.
Blood.
Adipose.
Haematopoietic.
Lymphatic
Where is bradykinin derived from?
Plasma proteins
A Articular facet for head of rib
B Superior/inferior articular facet
C Articular facet for tubercle of rib
What are stratified squamous epithelia specialised for?
protection from abrasion
Erector spinae muscles:
How would you identify them by palpation?
What movements do they support?
Between spinous process and ribs
Extension/flexion of the back
What is the function of communicating/nexus/gap junctions between epithelial cells?
Allows passage of small molecules for communication
Coagulative necrosis is typical of which damage to what type of organs?
Typical of infarction of solid organs (but not brain).
What type of WBC is this?
Eosinophil
What type of bacteria is this?
Streptobacilli
Define capsid
The protective protein coat shell around the viral genome and forming the core of the virus particle
Define affinity and how it is measured
- Affinity is the probability or strength of a drug binding to its receptors
- Measured with equilibrium dissociation constant
KA = drug concentration required for 50% occupancy of receptors
What shape is the nucleus of a fibroblast?
Elongated
What type of WBC is this?
Neutrophil
What is the function of tight/occluding junctions between epithelial cells?
To seal the intercellular space to prevent passage of substances between cells
Which is the most abundant WBC?
Neutrophil
What type of tissue is this?
Smooth muscle
What type of tissue is this?
Smooth muscle
What does SARS stand for?
Severe acture respiratory syndrome
What shape is a coccus bacteria?
Spherical
How many pairs of chromosimes does a human have?
23 pairs
What is the ECM of connective tissue composed of?
Ground substance and fibres
How is haematocrit calculated?
volume RBC/volume blood
