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Neurology System > Neurology Physiology > Flashcards

Neurology Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up the CNS?

A

Brain

Spinal Cord

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2
Q

What divisions are there to the nervous system?

A

CNS
Peripheral NS
Enteric NS

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3
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?

A

Sensory and motor

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4
Q

What is the motor division of the peripheral NS split into?

A

Somatic and autonomic

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5
Q

What is the autonomic division of the motor division of the peripheral NS divided into?

A

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

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6
Q

What are the 2 types of cells present in the nervous system?

A

Neurons

Glial cells

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7
Q

How are impulses carried in a neuron?

A

As an AP

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8
Q

Are neurons excitable cells?

A

Yes

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9
Q

Are glial cells excitable?

A

No

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10
Q

Are glial cells or neurones more numerous in the NS?

A

Glial cells

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11
Q

What are glial cells?

A

Non-excitable supporting cells

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12
Q

In what direction relative to the cell body do impulses carry AP?

A

Away from cell body

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13
Q

In what direction relative to the cell body do dendrites carry AP?

A

Towards the cell body

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14
Q

Are there multiple dendrites and one axon or multiple axons and one dendrite?

A

Multiple dendrites and one axon

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15
Q

What is the cytoplasm contained in the cell body known as?

A

Perikaryon

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16
Q

What is the cytoplasm contained in the axon known as?

A

Axoplasm

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17
Q

Can neurons repair themselves?

A

Axons can repair but cells bodies cannot

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18
Q

Do neurons have a slow or high metabolic rate?

A

High

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19
Q

Do neurons divide by mitosis?

A

No

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20
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

A

Increases conduction speed in axons

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21
Q

Do AP travel down the axon in a continuous manner?

A

no jumps from one node of ranvier to the next

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22
Q

What are the 2 types of neurons?

A

Myelinated and non-myelinated

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23
Q

What type of cell creates the myelin sheath in the PNS?

A

Schwann cells

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24
Q

What type of cell creates the myelin sheath in the CNS?

A

Oligodendrocytes

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25
Q

How is the myelin sheath formed?

A

By secretion of the cell membrane going round the axon

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26
Q

What classification of disease is MS?

A

Autoimmune

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27
Q

What do groups of cell bodies form?

A

Ganglia

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28
Q

What do groups of myelinated axons form?

A

Nerves

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29
Q

What makes up the brainstem?

A

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla

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30
Q

What is found below the hypothalamus?

A

Stalk of the pituitary gland

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31
Q

What are the 3 layers of the developing embryo?

A

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm

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32
Q

Thickening of which layer forms the neural tube?

A

Ectoderm

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33
Q

How is the neural tube formed?

A

Thickening of the ectoderm

Invaginated to form the neural tube

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34
Q

What are the peripheral cells to the neural tube called?

A

Neural crest cells

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35
Q

What does the cavity of the neural tube persist as in the adult brain?

A

Ventricles

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36
Q

What fluid is contained in the ventricles of the brain?

A

CSF

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37
Q

What are the names of the ventricles?

A

Lateral ventricles
3rd ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
4th ventricle

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38
Q

What shape is the IV ventricle?

A

Diamond

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39
Q

What are the 3 meninges?

A

Dura
Arachnoid
Pia

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40
Q

Where is CSF found in the meninges?

A

Subarachnoid space

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41
Q

What is the Filum terminale composed of?

A

The ending of the pia matter

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42
Q

Where does the cerebral aqueduct lie?

A

In the midbrain

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43
Q

What does the inter ventricular foramen connect?

A

The lateral ventricles to the 3rd ventricle

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44
Q

What are the layers of the scalp?

A 
Skin 
Connective tissue 
Aponeurosis 
Loose connective tissue 
Pericranium
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45
Q

What does the falx cerebri lie between?

A

2 cerebral hemispheres

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46
Q

What does the falx cerebelli lie between?

A

2 cerebella hemispheres

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47
Q

What does the tentorium cerebelli lie between?

A

The cerebrum and cerebellum

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48
Q

Which dural fold overlies the pituitary gland?

A

Diaphragma sellae

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49
Q

What composes the white matter in the spinal cord?

A

Myelinated axons

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50
Q

What are the 2 horns of the grey matter?

A

Dorsal horn

Ventral horn

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51
Q

Where do sensory fibres synapse?

A

In the dorsal ganglia

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52
Q

Where do motor neurons have their cell bodies?

A

In the ventral horn

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53
Q

Where do motor neurons exit the spinal cord via?

A

Ventral roots

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54
Q

What is the central canal?

A

Hole in the middle of the centre of the spinal cord

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55
Q

Where do ascending pathways carry information?

A

towards the brain

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56
Q

Where do descending pathways carry information?

A

Away from the brain

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57
Q

Are ascending pathways motor or sensory?

A

Sensory

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58
Q

Are descending pathways motor or sensory?

A

Motor

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59
Q

How many neurons are there in ascending pathways?

A

3

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60
Q

Where do first order neurons in ascending pathways carry sensory information?

A

from peripheral nerves to the spinal cord or brainstem where they synapse with 2nd order neurons

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61
Q

What is the pyramidal like structure at the termination of the spinal cord?

A

Cornus medullaris

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62
Q

What is the horses tail of the spinal cord?

A

Cauda equina

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63
Q

Where does the pia matter terminate?

A

At the filum terminale

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64
Q

Where does the lateral spinothalmic tract decussate?

A

At the level of the spinal cord

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65
Q

What does the lateral spinothalmic tract detect?

A

Pain and temperature

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66
Q

What does the dorsal spinothalmic tract detect?

A

Deep touch and pressure

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67
Q

Where do the dorsal ascending tracts decussate?

A

At the medulla oblongata

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68
Q

Where do the 2nd neurons of ascending tracts end?

A

At the thalamus

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69
Q

Where do 3rd order neurons arise from?

A

The thalamus

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70
Q

Where does the 3rd sensory neurons carry information to?

A

The sensory cortex of the cerebrum

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71
Q

Where is the sensory cortex located?

A

Behind the central sulcus

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72
Q

Do cerebellar tracts control contralateral or ipsilateral sides of the body?

A

Ipsilateral

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73
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31

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74
Q

Where is grey matter located in the brain?

A

In the outer portion

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75
Q

Where is grey matter located in the spinal cord?

A

In the inner matter

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76
Q

Where is white matter located in the brain?

A

In the middle

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77
Q

Where is white matter located in the spinal cord?

A

In the outer portion

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78
Q

What is a depression in the brain called?

A

Sulci

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79
Q

What is an elevation in the brain called?

A

Gyri

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80
Q

Which fissure separates the 2 lobes of the cerebrum?

A

Mean longitudinal fissure

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81
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Bridge that allows the hemispheres of the brain to communicate with one another

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82
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

A

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

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83
Q

What does the parieto-occipital sulcus separate?

A

Parietal and occipital lobe

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84
Q

Is the frontal lobe for sensory or motor functions?

A

Motor

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85
Q

Where is the visual field located?

A

In the occipital lobe

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86
Q

What is the temporal lobe functions?

A

Hearing and smell

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87
Q

What is the primary area?

A

Where the information first goes to

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88
Q

What is the association area?

A

Where the information is made sense

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89
Q

What is area 4 function?

A

Primary motor cortex

Somatic representation of contralateral half of body W

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90
Q

What is the function of area 44, 45?

A

Broca’s area of motor speech

Motor control of you physically speaking

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91
Q

What is the function of area 1,2,3?

A

Primary sensory area

Receives general sensation from contralateral half of body

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92
Q

What is the function of the superior parietal lobule.

A

Interprets general sensory information and conscious awareness of contralateral half of body

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93
Q

What is the function of area 41,42?

A

Primary auditory cortex

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94
Q

Where are auditory association areas located

A

Posterior to 41,42

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95
Q

Do we have auditory areas on one or both sides?

A

Both

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96
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

Area located in the dominant hemisphere, crucial for understanding spoken words

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97
Q

Where is the primary visual cortex located?

A

On either side of the calcarine sulcus

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98
Q

Part of the occipital lobe is the primary visual cortex what is the rest of the occipital lobe?

A

Visual association areas

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99
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

Motor speech area

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100
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

Auditory association area necessary for recognition of the spoken word

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101
Q

What is aphasia?

A

Problem with speech due to damage to one or more speech areas in the brain

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102
Q

What is broca’s aphasia?

A

Is able to understand speech
But cannot make full sentences
But can hear and understand that they are not making sense

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103
Q

What is Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

When the person has fluent speech
but uses meaningless words and is not aware of this
motor function is working fine
However their temporal lobe and understanding has been damaged

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104
Q

What are the 3 types of myelinated axon fibres?

A

Commisural fibres
Association fibres
Projection fibres

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105
Q

What is the function of commisural fibres?

A

Connect corresponding areas of the two hemispheres

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106
Q

What is the function of association fibres?

A

Connect one part of the cerebral cortex with the other in the same hemisphere

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107
Q

What are projection fibres?

A

Fibres that run between the cerebral cortex and various subcortical centres

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108
Q

What types of fibres make up the internal capsule?

A

Projection fibres

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109
Q

What is the internal capsule?

A

Narrow area between the thalamus and caudate nucleus medially and the lentiform nucleus laterally

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110
Q

Where does the internal capsule derive blood supply from?

A

Middle cerebral a.

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111
Q

What is the basal ganglia with the tail?

A

Caudate nucleus

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112
Q

Which lobe deals with vision?

A

Occipital

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113
Q

Which lobe deals with hearing?

A

Temporal

114
Q

What is area 4 of the brain?

A

Primary motor cortex

115
Q

What is area 6 of the brain?

A

Motor association areas

116
Q

What area is located in the inferior frontal gyrus?

A

Area 44,45,

117
Q

In what areas of the brain does the primary sensory area lie?

A

Area 1,2,3

118
Q

What is the function of the primary sensory area?

A

Receive general sensations from contralateral half of the body

119
Q

In what area does the primary visual cortex lie?

A

Area 17

120
Q

What is the function of area 18,19?

A

Visual association cortex

Concerned with the interpretation of visual images

121
Q

Where do basal ganglia lie?

A

Deep within the cerebral hemispheres

122
Q

Where doe the substantia nigra lie?

A

In the midbrain

123
Q

Which basal ganglia is functionally part of the other basal ganglia but not anatomically?

A

Substantia nigra

124
Q

Which basal ganglia make up the striatum?

A

Caudate nucleus

Putamen

125
Q

Which basal ganglia runs immediately laterally to the lateral ventricles?

A

Caudate nucleus

126
Q

Which are the input regions of the basal ganglia?

A

Caudate nucleus and putamen

127
Q

Which basal ganglia compose the output regions?

A

Globus pallidus

Substantia nigra

128
Q

What is the major function of the basal ganglia?

A

Help regulate and terminate movements

129
Q

Why are the basal ganglia often referred to as the extrapyramidal system?

A

Because they play a role in controlling the motor systems

130
Q

Where do the output regions of the basal ganglia output to?

A

The thalamus

131
Q

Which basal ganglia make up the lentiform nucleus?

A

Globus pallidus

Putamen

132
Q

what are the 2 descending lateral pathways?

A

Corticospinal tract

Rubrospinal tract

133
Q

Which is longest descending tract?

A

Corticospinal tract

134
Q

From which area does 2/3 of the CST originate?

A

From area 4 and 6

135
Q

Where does the other 1/3 of the CST originate?

A

Somatosensory

136
Q

where do the corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts decussate?

A

At the medulla (pyramids)

137
Q

Which side of the body does the right motor cortex control?

A

Left

138
Q

Which side of the body does the left motor cortex control?

A

Right

139
Q

Where does corticospinal tracts synapse on the spinal cord?

A

On the ventral horns

140
Q

Where do rubrospinal tracts originate from the brain?

A

Magnocellular red nucleus of the midbrain

141
Q

If the CST is lesions how can normal function almost be restored?

A

The RST can take over and restore function

the RST can assume almost all the duties of the CST when the CST is lesioned

142
Q

What are the 2 ventromedial pathways ?

A

Vestibulospinal and tectospinal tracts

143
Q

What does the Vestibulospinal tract do?

A

Stabilises the head and neck

144
Q

Where do pyramidal tracts originate?

A

In the cortex

145
Q

Where do extrapyramidal tract originate from?

A

midbrain

146
Q

Are pyramidal tracts responsible for voluntary or involuntary motor movement?

A

Voluntary

147
Q

Where does the TST begin?

A

In the superior colliculus

148
Q

Where does the VST begin?

A

In the vestibular nucleus

149
Q

How many neurons are there in descending pathways?

A

2

150
Q

What is the function of the tectospinal tract?

A

to ensure eye movement remain stable with movement of the body

151
Q

Does the CTS decussate?

A

Yes to control contralateral side

152
Q

Does the rubrospinal tract decussate?

A

Yes to control the contralateral side

153
Q

What are the two lateral descending pathways?

A

Corticospinal tract

Rubrospinal tract

154
Q

What are the four ventromedial descending pathways?

A

Tectospinal tract
Vestibulospinal tract
Pontine Reticulospinal tract
Medullary Reticulospinal tract

155
Q

Where do upper motor neurons target?

A

Lower motor neurons in the spinal cord

156
Q

What is meant by somatotopic?

A

An specific area codes for another specific area

157
Q

What muscles do medial LMN control?

A

Proximal muscles

158
Q

What muscles do lateral LMN control?

A

Distal muscles

159
Q

What is located in the precentral gyrus?

A

Primary motor cortex

160
Q

What is located rostrally to the precentral gyrus?

A

Pre-motor areas

Association areas

161
Q

What is area 6?

A

Pre-motor area

162
Q

What does the central sulcus separate?

A

Primary motor

and primary sensory areas

163
Q

How many somatotopic maps does area 6 have?

A

2

164
Q

How many somatotopic maps does area 4 have?

A

1

165
Q

Are somatotopic maps proportionate?

A

No very disproportionate

166
Q

Does one cell in the motor cortex stimulate one certain muscle?

A

No

By stimulating a certain area of the motor cortex this will lead to an overall action

167
Q

What is the function of the junction where axons converge in area 6?

A

Where signals encoding what actions are desired are converted into how the actions will be carried out

168
Q

When you only think about doing a movement but do not carry this movement out which area is activated?

A

Area 6 in the cortex

169
Q

When you are actually doing the movement but the CST or RST which cortex area is stimulated?

A

Area 4 of the cortex

170
Q

When a specific area of the brain is stimulated what is show on PET?

A

Increased blood flow and firing of AP

171
Q

What is refraction (eye)?

A

Bending of light waves to fall on the retina

172
Q

What 3 things make up accommodation?

A

Lens change shape
Pupil constricts
Eyes converge

173
Q

Describe the event of lens thickening in accommodation

A 
Ciliary muscles contract making the ciliary body bulge
Space in middle decreases
Suspensory ligaments become lax 
Lens is no longer under stretch 
Lens becomes thicker
174
Q

Does parasympathetic or sympathetic innervation make the pupils constrict?

A

Parasympathetic

175
Q

Which muscles cause the eyes to converge?

A

Medial rectus

176
Q

Which cranial nerve controls the medial rectus?

A

CN III

177
Q

What is myopia?

A

Short signtedness

178
Q

What is hyperopia?

A

Long sigghtedness

179
Q

What causes astigmatism?

A

Non-spherical curvature of the cornea

180
Q

What is presbyopia?

A

Long sightedness of the elderly

181
Q

What causes myopia?

A

Often too long an eyeball

Meaning rays bend before they reach the retina

182
Q

What are symptoms of myopia?

A

Headache
Complaining of not being able to see far away
Younger children and toddlers have loss of interest
Infants - divergent squint

183
Q

What is the treatment for myopia?

A

Spectacles
Contact lenses
Laser eye surgery

184
Q

What causes hyperopia?

A

Eye ball too short

Rays bend and from image behind the retina

185
Q

How does the person accommodate for hyperopia?

A

Uses accommodative power to make the lens thicker

186
Q

Why does accommodation not work eventually in hyperopia?

A

Eventually all accommodative power is used up

187
Q

What type of lenses are required for astigmatism?

A

Toric lenses

188
Q

What causes presbyopia?

A

Age

Less able to contract ciliary muscle causing decrease in accommodative power

189
Q

Which retina sees the left visual field?

A

Right

190
Q

Which retina sees the right visual field?

A

Left

191
Q

What is the point where fibres from each optic nerve cross?

A

Optic chiasma

192
Q

Which fibres cross over at the optic chiasma?

A

Nasal fibres

193
Q

Which retina sees the left visual field?

A

Right

194
Q

Which retina sees the right visual field?

A

Left

195
Q

What is the point where fibres from each optic nerve cross?

A

Optic chiasma

196
Q

Which fibres cross over at the optic chiasma?

A

Nasal fibres

197
Q

Where do optic fibres synapse?

A

At lateral Geniculate Body

198
Q

Which lobe of the brain processes visual information?

A

Occipital lobe

199
Q

What is area 17?

A

Primary Visual Cortex

200
Q

On which side of the retina is the right visual field seen?

A

Left

201
Q

Which side of the brain processes information from the right visual field?

A

Left

202
Q

What damage would you expect if the right optic nerve was damaged?

A

Blindness in the right eye

203
Q

What damage would you expect if the optic chiasma was affected?

A

Visual loss from peripheral visual fields

Bi- temporal hemianopia

204
Q

What damage would you expect if the right optic tract was damaged?

A

Loss of left visual field

Contralateral homonymous hemianopia

205
Q

What are the two groups of eye muscles?

A

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

206
Q

What are the 4 recti muscles of the eye?

A
  • medial rectus
  • lateral rectus
  • inferior rectus
  • superior rectus
207
Q

What are the 2 oblique muscles of the eye?

A

Superior oblique

Inferior oblique

208
Q

Which is the only eye muscle to arise anteriorly?

A

IO

209
Q

Which eye muscle lies directly above SO?

A

LPS

Levator Palpebrae Superioris

210
Q

Which cranial nerve innervates all eye muscles except SO, LR?

A

CN III

211
Q

Which cranial nerve innervates SO muscle?

A

CN IV

212
Q

Which cranial nerve innervates LR muscle?

A

CN VI

213
Q

What is the action of the medial recuts?

A

Adduction

214
Q

What is the action of the lateral recti?

A

Abduction

215
Q

What is the primary action of Superior rectus?

A

Elevation

216
Q

What is the primary action of the IR?

A

Depression

217
Q

What is the primary action of the SO?

A

Intorsion

218
Q

What is the primary action of the IO?

A

Extorsion

219
Q

What is esotropia?

A

Convergent squint of the eye

220
Q

What is exotropia?

A

Divergent squint of the eye

221
Q

What are the intrinsic muscles of the eye/

A

Ciliaris muscle
Constrictor papillae
Dilator pupillae

222
Q

What is the action of contraction of the ciliaris muscle?

A

Accommodation
Thickening of the lens
Due to lax on the suspensory ligaments

223
Q

What is the action of the constrictor pupillae?

A

Works to constrict the pupil under parasympathetic innervation

224
Q

What is the action of the dilator pupillae?

A

Works to dilate the pupil under sympathetic innervation

225
Q

What muscle runs radially in the iris?

A

Dilator Pupillae

226
Q

What is the normal reaction of the pupils toincreased illumination?

A

Both pupils constrict

227
Q

What is the normal reaction of the pupils to decreased illumination?

A

Both pupils dilate

228
Q

Where do fibres destined to activate the pupillary reflex go?

A

To the midbrain where CN III is situated

229
Q

Where is CN III situated?

A

In the midbrain

230
Q

Does the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system have thoracolumbar outflow?

A

Sympathetic

231
Q

Where do ganglia lie in the sympathetic system?

A

Close to the spinal cord

232
Q

Where do ganglia in the parasympathetic system lie?

A

Close to the organ

233
Q

What is the autonomic NS a division of?

A

Efferent nervous system

234
Q

Which division of the autonomic NS has long pre-ganglionic and short post ganglionic fibres?

A

Parasympathetic

235
Q

Which division of the NS has craniosacral outflow?

A

Parasympathetic

236
Q

What type of synapses are there between the pre and post ganglionic cells in the sympathetic system?

A

Cholinergic and nicotinic

237
Q

In the parasympathetic system the synapses between pre- and post-ganglionic cells are …

A

Cholinergic and nicotinic

238
Q

In the parasympathetic system the synapses between post-ganglionic cells and their targets are …..

A

Cholinergic and muscarinic

239
Q

Post-ganglionic cells in the adrenal medulla …..

A

Release adrenaline
Have no axons
Are part of the sympathetic system
Contribute to mass acitvation

240
Q

Which receptors does noradrenaline work on?

A

Alpha
Beta
Adrenergic

241
Q

In the eye activation of the sympathetic system causes…..

A

Constriction of the radial muscle of the iris

Causing dilation of the pupil

242
Q

Where do motor neurons have their cell bodies?

A

In the ventral horn of the spinal cord

243
Q

What is contained in the central canal of the spinal cord?

A

CSF

244
Q

What do ascending pathways carry?

A

Carry information towards the brain

245
Q

What do descending pathways carry?

A

Motor information - carry information away from the brain

246
Q

How many neurons are there in ascending pathways?

A

3

247
Q

Where do 1st order neurons bode?

A

In the dorsal ganglion

248
Q

Where do 2nd order neurons synapse with 3rd order neurons?

A

In the thalamus

249
Q

Where do 3rd order neurons carry information?

A

From the thalamus to primary sensory area

250
Q

Which order neuron decussates at the medulla?

A

2nd

251
Q

What information do ascending lateral pathways carry?

A

Pain and temperatue

252
Q

What do ascending dorsal column tract carry/

A

Deep touch and pressure

253
Q

Where does the ascending dorsal column decussate?

A

At the medulla

254
Q

Where does the lateral ascending tract decussate?

A

At the level of the spinal cord

255
Q

Does the lateral ascending tract supply the contralateral or ipsilateral side?

A

Contralateral

256
Q

Does the dorsal ascending tact supply the contralateral or ipsilateral side?

A

contralateral

257
Q

Where do descending pathways orginate?

A

Cerebral cortex - primary motor area

258
Q

How many neurons do descending pathways have?

A

2

259
Q

Where does the 1st order neurons decussate in descending pathways?

A

At the pyramids in the medulla

260
Q

Where does the 1st order neuron synapse with the 2nd order neuron in descending pathways?

A

Ventral horn of the spinal cord

261
Q

What 4 systems control movement?

A

Descending control pathways
Basal Ganglia
Cerebellum
Local spinal cord and brain stem circuits

262
Q

Which level is the biceps jerk at?

A

C6

263
Q

Which level is the triceps jerk at?

A

C7

264
Q

What level is the patellar reflex at?

A

L4

265
Q

What level is the Achilles tendon reflex at?

A

S1

266
Q

What is pain?

A

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
Not a stimulus
Final product of complex information processing network

267
Q

What is nociception?

A

The detection of tissue damage by specialised transducers connected to A-dela and C fibres

268
Q

What is meant by the term noxious?

A

Means the pain has reached the threshold

269
Q

Where do pain neurons synapse and cross over?

A

At the level of the spinal cord

270
Q

Which nerve fibres conduct pain?

A

A delta and C fibres

271
Q

Which fibres conduct fast pain?

A

A delta fibres

272
Q

Which fibres would transmit a sharp pinching pain?

A

A delta fibres

273
Q

Which fibres conduct dull pain?

A

C fibres

274
Q

Where do primary nociceptive afferent impulses primarily end?

A

Dorsal horn

275
Q

Where do 2nd order neurons of ascending pathways go from?

A

Spinal cord to thalamus

276
Q

Whee does pain perception occur?

A

In the somatosensory cortex

277
Q

What is allodynia?

A

Pain due to stimulus that does not normally cause pain

278
Q

What is hyperalgesia?

A

Exagerated response to normal pain stimuli

279
Q

Spontaneous Pain

A

Spontaneous activity in nerve fibres

280
Q

When does pain become chronic?

A

After 3-6 months

281
Q

What is a distinguishing feature of C pain fibres?

A

They are unmyelinated

Neurology System (35 decks)

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