Motivations and Emotions Flashcards
1
Q
definition of motivation
A
driving force for intaition, perssistance and goal-directed behaviour
the need/desire to do something
2
Q
levels of motivation
A
- immediate need
- long term need (goals, careers)
- physiological
- pscyhological
3
Q
what is a drive
A
simplification of stimulu-response relationship whereby a behaviour is innitiated
4
Q
(6) theories of emotion?
A
- Instinct Theory
- Pyschodynamic Theory
- Incentive Theory
- Drive-Reduction Theory
- Arousal Theory
- Humanistic Theory
5
Q
example of stimulus-response
A
stimulus= indepdnent; water deprivation
response= dependent= drinking water
the motivation= thirst for drinking
6
Q
what theories are internal predictors of behaviour
A
drive reduction theory
arousal theory
7
Q
what theories are external predictors of behaviour
A
incentive theory
8
Q
which theories are both internal and external predictors of behaviour
A
huanistic theories such as Maslows
9
Q
Instinct Theory
A
1980 William James:
all behaviour can be explained by innate instincts
evolutionary perspective; complex unlearned behaviours with fixe patterns in species
10
Q
Pyschodynamic theory
A
1920 Freud: motivation is the battle between pleasure and death that drives behaviour
11
Q
why is instinct theory not useful today
A
- doesnt explain external motiators or influences on behaviour such as culture or sociality
12
Q
Incentive Theory:
A
behaviours are reinforced by previous experiences of rewards and punishments
proposed by: Skinner 1940
13
Q
Drive-Reduction Theory
A
behavioural drives are a state of tension caused by internal imbalances aiming to achieving equillibgirum
homeostatic/hydraulic model
by Hull 1943
14
Q
Arousal Theory
A
behavioural drives result from arousal levels being above/below optimum hence we either are exicted/calm to achieve neutrality
by Hebb and Thompson 1954
15
Q
what does arousal theory explain
A
why we might seek ‘senstation’ seeking activities (like sky diving)
16
Q
Humanisitc Theory
A
we week to maximised satifaction and personal pleasure in a hierarchial structure of needs/stages; focuses on positive motives as opposed to defects
proposed by Maslow in the 1960s
17
Q
example of how drive-reduction theory works
A
homeostatically;
having a ‘set point’ and ‘error dectection’ margins that issue autonomic responses to regulate body processes such as temperature, energy levels, hormones, etc.
18
Q
homestostatis
A
processes that maintain an internal equillibrium
19
Q
what key brain area plays a role in drive eduction theory
A
The hypothalmus–> it maintains homestostatis (body temp control, hormones, etc )
20
Q
evidence for drive reduction theory
A
- Glucostatic Theory and Experiments
- biologitical and intutive
- adult body weight remains relatively constant
21
Q
evidence against drive reduction theory (6)
A
- binge eating (like at christmas; uncontrollable eating regardles of hunger)
- eating disorders
- consuming high E foods (red bull) before eating doesnt reduce eating
- obesity epidemic
- patient RH= a man who forgot to eat
- doesnt address taste, learnign, visual cues/social norms (external factors) influencing hunger/eating
22
Q
what influences what we eat
A
- decreased nutritive density of a diet (calories per unit)
- sensory specific satiety (taste)
- social infleunces (i.e. eating with others)
- serving size (misleading visual cues)
- (sometimes) major energy deficits; but not a factor in captilistic/food filled societies
23
Q
Warsink 2005 Study
A
soup eating:
- normal bowls
- self-refilling bowls
people with self-refilling bowls eat 73% more than people with normal bowls= implies serving size is a avisual cue for satiety
24
Q
Minnesotta Starvation Experiment 1944
A
young men starve by experiments to figure out how to treat famine victims of war:
results:
- Food became an obsession (reading cook books, planning)
- sexual drives dminished, weak bones, anxious and depression
- feeling sof guilt/binge eating food (eating disorders)
25
UCSD University Study 2015
people with anexorisa= feel less 'reward' when given food= hence HUNGER is not an incentive to eat
26
what can homeo-static theories not account for
hunger and other motiations caused by extenral cues;
other motivation such as sex, love, money making and approval have no clear 'set-point'
27
Glucostatic Theory of Hunger
by Mayer in 2005: experiments on lab animals whereby reducing the blood sugar in lab animals (rats) through insulin injrectsiont hen increases the animals eating
this is because the hypothalmsus acts on the glucoreceptors or thermoreceptors (blood sugar reculators) to incentivize hunger/eating
28
why is hunger used as an example for drive reduction theory
as hunger= is a consequenc eof energy deficit due to low gluclose levels and need to stabailize body fat levels which the hypothalamus regulates
29
what does the incentive theory account for
non physiologial motivations and rewards for behaviour
30
olds and milner 1954 experiment
they identified the brains reward center accidnetally, after trying to identify how to make rats emotionally uncomfortable:
- -> placed electrodes in rats brain and stimulated areas
- -> the rat learned to return over and over again to a lever in a cage [positive reinforecement]
when rats given opportunity to 'self adminisniter' stimulations= they pressed the lever over 700 times in an hour preferring the lever over food, water and exhaustion
31
where is the reward center of the brain
nucleus accumbens (stratium in basal anglia); activity increases here with rewards
32
when does activity in the reward center increase (examples
- drug addicts when they see pictures of drugs (paraphernalia)
- when smokers get nicotine
- when mothers see pics of babies (swain 2008)
- when participants anticipate monetary rewards (knutson 2001)
33
Schaelpfer 2008 study
stimulated the nucleus accumbens in depressed humans and found an increase in the ANTICIPATION of positive events
demonstrates increase of WANTING a positive outcome; but not neccesarily feeling pleasure
34
wanting
motivational incentive value of the same reward (not a sensory experience)
35
liking
hedonic impact of receiving the award (brains reaction to sensory pleasure)
36
hunger incentive theory
humans and animals eat due to the anticipated pleasure of eating (positive reward perspective)
so EATING is a reward
37
milkner kesen 1952 study
rats learn to navigate a maze with milk reward incentive:
found that rats prefer to DRINK the milk as opposed to just having it pumped in stomacth
so anticipatory eating is a classically condionted response
38
how do the reward center and the hypothalmus work
--> hypothalamus (containing glucoreceptors) is found here in the septal region which is responsible for dopamine release that affects the nucleus accumbens activity
39
how might the hunger incentive theory be evolutionary explained
we have evolved to crave food in order to take advantage of when there AE fatty calories present
40
wanting vs liking
they go together but have different neural mechanisms
- liking= hedonic impact (brain reaction to sensory pleasure by reward)
- wanting= incentive salience (motivational incentive value of the same reward= NOT A SENSORY pleasure)
41
Maslos Hierarchial Theory: 3 main points
1. humans have a wide range of needs
2. needs vary over time
3. needs are hierarhcial
42
Maslows Hierarhcy of Needs (the levels)
1. Physyioloical (breathing, food, water, sleep, sex, homeostatis, excretion)
2. Safety (health, moratliy, family, shelter, friends)
3. Love/Belonging (family, freindship, sexual intimacy)
4. Esteem (confidnece, rsepectve)
5. Self-Actualization (creativity, morality, etc)
43
Defiency vs Growth Needs
Deficency needs= need to be fullfilled first as signs of deprivation (levels 1-3; from physiological to esteem)
Growth Needs= no fear of deprivation allows for individuals to fullfipple personal positive potentiatl (self actualization)
44
what does subjetive wellbeing correlate to
subjective wellbeing
45
limitations of maslows hierarhy of needs
1. not strictly hierarchial
2. bias towards western individualisitc ideas of personal growth; doesnt engage with reladeness/collective identity in self-actualization
46
Tay and Diener 2011
conducted a cross cultural study
found that self satisfcaition correlates with subjective wellbeing in hierarhcial needs-based societies
but little evdience for a direct rigid structure of needs (some needs are more important that others)
47
what is an incentive
a positive/negative stimuli that arouses us
48
optimal arousal
rather than reducing/meeting tensions or drives we are motivated to maintain a balance between stimulation and relaxation
49
what is affect
subjective and conscious sensation and feeling measured by PANAS questionate (affect distinguishes from emotion as its a conscious measurable feeling)
50
what is a physiological state
arousal (hear trate, pupils, hormones) that is determined by sympathethic nervous system
51
examples of emotional expressions
vocalizations, facial expressions, body expressions
52
what is a drive
motivations of behaviour (response/reaction)
53
what is a thought
a style of thinking (cognition; thinking)
54
pyschological definition of an emotion
a constellation of multiple factors such as affect, physiological elements, emotional expressions, drives and thoughts that can be felt by the whole body
a 'mind-body' response to a stimulus of some kind resultin in physiological arousal, expressive behaviour and concious experience
55
how can emotional expressions be measured
EMG (electromyography) electrodes measuring facial changes or frame/by/frame analysis of video recordings
56
Numenmag 2014 Study
asked participants to say when they felt an emotion in the body using a MAP OF THE BODY to localize emotions where people experience physiological responses
57
Ekmann + Friesen 1971 Study
studied facial expressions to see if there are 'universal/basic emotions'
Method:
1. took exagerrated photos of faces and showed them to isolated new guinea tribe and a group of american researchres
2. asked each group to correlate faces to a story
Results:
- despite cultural differences; emotional expression not arbitrarty
- both groups had similar conclusiosn and aggreed upon expressions
- 6 primary emotions were identified
58
6 primary emotions
```
anger
fear
disgust
surprise
happines
sadness
```
59
Secondary Emotions
combinations of the primary:
i.e.
anger + fear--> jealousy
fear + disgust---> shame
surprise + happiness---> delight
60
Limitations of Ekman and Freisen 1971 Study
1. primary facial expressions rarely occur in pure form
2. other primary emotions exist (trust, curiousity)
3. body cues are also important expressions
4. photos were exagerated
5. recognition and expression of emotions is not as universal as variations exist (in west vs east asia; nodding heads as different meanings)
61
Russel 1980 Theory of Emotions
sees emotions not as caterogies but spectrums;
his 'dimensional emotion theory' propose that there are different dimensions of emotion combining VALENCE and AROUSAL chemas
i. e. depression is when you have negative valence and low arousal
i. e. exictement is when there is high arousal and positive valence
62
PANAS
positive and negative affect schedule; measures affect
63
key questions about emotions
1. does cognition precede emotion
2. does pyscholgoical arousal precede or follow affect
3. does emotion=feeling
64
common sense view of emotion
perception of a bear creats a feeling of fear resulting in a physiological reaction
first we are scared; then we react
65
james lange 1884 view of emotion
Perception---> Physiological Reaction- (regulated by cerebral cotex)--> Feeling/Emotion
(our feeligns following bodily reactions to external stimuli)
BODY first reacts to a stiatuion in an autonomic response
so EMOTION is the PERCEPTION of the response to the stimulus and each emotion subjectively distriminates/has a unique physiological style
66
canon-bard theory of emotion
PERCEPTION---> Physiological reaction/feeling (indepdnent)
emotions (affect)+ expressions/reaction are independent processes
emotion-arousing stimulus trigger at the same time physiological and subjective experiences of emotions
so the body response; dont specify all emotions as all emotiosn have the Same ANS response
physiological reactions are too slow to account for sudden emotions
changes in body state do not correlate with emotional state
67
how was the james lange theory tested and what were the variables
Ax 1953: special emotions correlate with specific respones in hypertension experiment:
IV= participaints given accidental electrical shocks or insulted by technician (stimulate fear/anger emotions)
DV= physiological variabes (blood pressure, heart rate, galvanic skin response)
68
canon-bard theory testing
testing whether autonomous system and emotional state correlate
i.e. 'can you SMILE yourself happy'
69
Strack-Martin-Stepper 1988 Study (method and variables)
are body states and affect indepdnent?
Method= get participants to hold pen in a mouth under the guise of pscyhomotric coordination study
IV= the pen pose (vertical or horizantal/length pose; one inhibits smiling)
DV= funniess rating of cartoon
70
results of Ax 1953 tests
attribution of broad congruence in autonomic arousal= responses specific to certain emotiosn were elicited so PERHAPS JL is right
71
limitation of strack, martin, stepper
participants= report emotions they THINK youre trying to get them to display= DEMAND characteristics
72
Strack, Martin, Strepper 1988 results
cartoons were funniest when participants held the pen in teeth (vertical); so when they could smile
73
Schlacter and Singer 1962 aim method and variables
aim= missatribution of arousal studied (physioloical and contextual cues of affect) to evalanuate JS idea that the same state should always produce the same emotion
method=
inject volunteers with aderenaline. tell 1/2 nothing and other 1/2 drug causes sweating/heart ratcing.
participants then self-report mood.
IV= infromation about adrenaline effects (expectaitons)
DV= self reported mood
74
Schachter and Singer 1962 results
those who didnt expect arousal---> felt more euphoric/angry
demonstrates:
only physiological drive cant fully explan emotions as our expectations play a role
(named this the 'misattribution of arousal effect' or 'two factor theory of emotion')
75
Duton and Aron 1974 aim, method and variables
aim= idetnify how we attribute our emotions to events in the real world (elaborated schalcher and singer study)
method: attractive female itnerview approahces men who just crossed a high bridge vs men who crossed it 10 minutes ago, conducts a servey and offers her phone number
iv= arousal (the time since crossing the bridge)
dv= whether men called the woman
76
Duton and Aron 1974 results
13/20 men called when in high arousal state
5/23 called when in low arousal state
77
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
by schlacter + singer; idea that AFFECT influenced by both physiological and contextual cues/expectations
78
how was JAmes LANGE theory tested
1. Schachter and Singer 1962; test idea that ANS alwaays produces same emotion
2. Ax 1953: test whether special emotions correlate to specific responses
79
limtations of schlacher and singer study
- doesnt replicate real life as usualyl we can identify the external factors causing our emotions
80
evaluate the james lange theory
but incorrect as there is NO NEED for feedback
somewhat wrong= body states dont uniequely detemrine our emotional state (as shown in Schlater-Singer study)
also patients with broken necks that dont have autonomic feedback still experience emotions
animals/peopel with nerve damage still experience emotion
broad changes in physiological arousal state= arent subtle enough to support ALL emotions
emotions can be felt faster htan physiological changes could support
emotional stimuli have 2 inepdendnent exitatory effects ((parallel/multiple conflicting emotiosn might occur)
81
evaluate the canon bard theory
wrong as our body states DO influence our emotional sattes (as shown in strack, martin and strepper study of facial feedback effect)
emotions are inedpenent feedback
but incorrect as there is NO NEED for feedback
82
modern biopyschological theory of emotion
FEELING + PERCEPTION+ PHYSIOLOGICAL reactions all affect each other
as emotions influence perception
and affect influences physiological reactions
83
example of affect influencing physiological reactions
butterflies in stomacth= worse when we think about something anxious
84
example of emotions influencing perception
higher attention in high arousal
suspescitlbe to visual allusions
criminal case studies with witness accounts
85
Phineas gage
1848; suffered a rod in prefrontal cortex resulting in antire personality and mood change (became impulsive and unreliable)
damage in medial prefrontal lobes for planning/emotional control
86
Padez 1937 investigated what
the limbic system! localized emotion system in the cortex of the hypohtalamus and decuded that the EMOTION SYSTEM links the cortex to the hypothalamus
87
Phan 2003 Study
studied the limbic system; found that there was no emotion centre as multipel reactions occur
did a meta analysis of 55 neuroimages
the subcallosal cingualte more involved in sadness
amygalda more involved in fear
88
what do emotions do in the brain
increase neuroal activity in:
motor/sensory systems
amygdalda
hypothalamus
separate brain raeas are responsible for different emotions but there is no emotion centre
89
Bechara 1997: Iowa Gambling Tasks aim, methods and variables
aim= study whether emotion is pat of cognition/decision making
method=
pick a random card form 4 decks.
Each card has a loss/reward.
There are 2 good decks and 2 bad decks.
iv= the goodness of a deck
dv= self-reported understanding of cards/galbanic skin conductance before picking
90
Bechara 1997 results
Pre-punishment: before first card is lost
Pre-hunch= self report has no idea
hunch= self reporter has suspision
conceptual= correctly figured out
in controls:
1. fast anticipation of the bad deck and higher galabanic skin conductance even before hunch was reported
in patients: low conceptual period/hunch and no galbanic skin conductacnce= failure to have a hunch/distinuigh good form bad decks
91
Becchara 1997 controls
10 health people age matched
92
Bechara 1997 patients
6 people with bilateral damage to prefrontal cortex :
| showing signs of impuslesiveness, lack of skin conductance and abnormal emotions
93
Somatic Marker Hypothesis
by Damasio:
emotional processes guide behaviour and decision making as emotions are marked certain spects of a situation where high uncertainity
emotions thus a 'gut feeling' or 'somatic marker' that occur under our awareness radar
94
emotions vs reasons
often place in a dichotomy however emotiosn are a part of cognition as they can act as biases and frame decisions
95
Klürer-Bucy Syndrome
when the amygadala has a lesion that results in no fear
found in monkeys with amygdalda lesions that don't evhibit fear
96
Klürer-Bucy Syndrome
when the amygadala has a lesion that results in no fear
found in monkeys with amygdalda lesions that don't evhibit fear
97
facial feedback hypothesis
tricking emotions by imitating them in facial expressions; smiling yourself happy
98
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?
99
caroal izard
identified 10 emotions we have since birth and says everythign else is just a combination
100
2-D model of emotions
all emotions we feel are expressed on a spectrum combinin positive or negative velance and arousal tha affect our pyschological and bodily states
101
what is arousal
an increase in reactivity tha tprimes us for an action
102
Zasonc theory
all emtions are the result of putting a 'name to our emotions'
103
shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?
2 factor theory: to experience an emotion one must be:
1. physically aroused
2. cogntiviely label that arousal
aka. 'arousal SPURS emotions but cognition DIRECTS it'
104
shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?
2 factor theory: to experience an emotion one must be:
1. physically aroused (experience)
2. cogntiviely label that arousal (perception)
aka. 'arousal SPURS emotions but cognition DIRECTS it'
105
emotion epsidoes
used to describe emotional states beter; as emotion is a dynamic process with start, middle and end= differentiates emotions from MOODS
106
mood vs emotion
moods are longer lasting and more of a constant state with not a direct stimulus
107
what is a 'feeling'
a subjective experience of emotional arousal, often conscious and verbalizable
108
emotions vs emotional expressions
emotion= conscious feeling
emotional expression= can be faked
109
emotional triad
feeling + physioloigy + expression
110
Crisis Response
posulate that the 'emotional triad' interacts in specific ways during an episode to allow for an organism to interact
111
nummenmaa 2016
produced a heat drive map based on semantic feelings associating thought sor styles of thinking (why you might be angry)
112
Wundt 1874
tridimesnional system to charactersize nature of emotinal feelign states by adding exictment vs depression and tension vs relaxation
113
hebb + thompson 1979
show evolutionary signfance of emotions as humans are the most 'emotional animals' but also mos t'rational beings'
114
darwin on emotions
he argues emotions serve as useful indicators of animal signall to prep for adaptive behaviour (i.e. primates communicate aggression by gaze)
115
why do we have emotions
1. evoultaionry signfnance (hebb thompson)
2. adaptive function (darwin)
3. regulation of social interactions (primates and agggression)
4. making decisions and information processining
5. behavioural flexilibty (stimlus and response)
6. regulate and control subsystems in emotional episodes
116
philosophical notions of emotions
infromation about a situation alone= does not allow the prediction of the emotion
(i.e. a person evlautes an emotion in respect to the needs/goals of an event)
117
Sham Rage
aggresive + inapproroate responses of animals at a particular target (like the cats with removed cerebral hemisphers)
118
hypothalamus + cortex is responsible for
shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?
119
cognitive theory of emotion
- accepts the JL fundamendal idea that emotions= reported feelings= roles in peripheral nervous system
- doubts idea that that emotions are differentiated patterns (suggest precpetion of high arousal also elicits emotions/feeling)
120
Aprraisal theory
appraisal is a process= changing reapprasials and first impressions vs secondar appraisals)
1. the goal (primary)
2. the consequences (secondary) changing future goals
121
what are apprisal criteria used for
to evaluate emotion ante-cedant events (novelty/expectendess of an event and how to react)
122
Lazarus
came up with appraisal model and said it was transacational:
(signfnitiave of event not just by goals/needs/resources but an interaction of nature of emotion and result of transation)
123
emotion blends
when a person gives rise to a mixture of several emotions at a time
124
appraisal theory and culture differences
apprsail criteria is defined by cultural defined goals and values
socio cultural value systems affect emotional life (indivdualistic vs emotional life)
125
Walbott Sherer Study 1995
evaluated 37 countries and apprasial critera=
in individualistic cultures= little differences between shame/guilt and both cases seen asimmoral
in collectivist cultures= guilt judged as immoral that events that produce shame (shame is intense and brief whereas in invidiaulistic cultures shame and guilt are involved in SELF evaluation )
126
discrete emotion theories
there are a limited number of 'discrete emotions' that our innate neural motor systems exceeute at appropriate stimualtions
127
heuristics definition
any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method, not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, logical, or rational, but instead sufficient for reaching an immediate goal.
128
african cultures and belief of emotions
attribute greater EXTERNAL causality/immorality to emoiton inducing events
maybe= sorcery; belief structure assigning moral blam eto the 'unnatural'
129
african cultures and belief of emotions
attribute greater EXTERNAL causality/immorality to emoiton inducing events
maybe= sorcery; belief structure assigning moral blam eto the 'unnatural'
130
wundt on culture and emotion
emotional expression subject to cultural control= 'display rules'
131
Hoschchild on emotions
'positive feeling rules' intenstify aprpropiate feelings in certain social itnerests (so faking becomes real)
132
physiological changes of emotiosn
1. changes in physiological states= dont always serve communicatory prurpose
2. primary function to give energy and prepare for an action (so emotions are specialm mechanisms in CNS to produce physiological changes)
133
polygraphy
a measure of investigation how the ANS indexes emotions to infer the truth of subjects responses ('mock crime; innocent vs guilty participants whereby examine interrorages and tries to see whos lying)
134
how can u tell someone is lying
control-question technique and lie detector
| but it just detects EMOTIONS and not LIES
135
what is the limbic system
a collection of nuclei/tracts bordering the thalamaus whereby emotional states are expressed by action so fothe rlimbic systems on the hypthalamus
136
leptin
Lesions to ventromedial hypothalamus creates a leptin deficit which interferes with out hunger ‘set points’
137
Solomons opponent process theory of motivation:
homeostatic logic applies to brain hedonic systems that mediate different types of motivation
Opponent-process drive concept—> all hedonic stimuli activate not only the direct reaction int he brain but also an opponent process of hedonic valance: i.e. heroein
1. A process; all the PLEASANT heroine stimuli activates the reward circus (a positive affective reaction )
2. B process: reduces the A state and creates tolerance/diminishment of brain pleasure= b process gets strengthened as heroein is used
138
contradictions of homeostatic without homeostatic mechansnims:
- motivation often taken to be ‘decreased’ if trigger is found and mediated.
- home-static outcomes can be reached without homeostatic outcomes
- anticipatory motivation also influences it (thirst increases around a mealtime)
- looks homeostatic but also externally/socially led
- Setlling-point: a stable state caused by a balance of opposing forces without setpoint/error detection (i.e. sea level has not homeostatic set point but is maintained= self maintaining equilibrium without a constant set point)
139
Robert Bolles (1980);
argues that hunger/eating has no homeostatic mechanism;
- body weight set point doesn’t exist; thus hunger can’t be triggered by any error deviation from a set point
- body weight simply ‘settles’ around a point that is moderately stable (determined by internal appetite + satiety mechanisms AND availability of food/external factors)
- i.e. obesity; internal ‘set points’ the same but external appetite/satiety mechanisms and food availability changed
- bodyweight maintained by perception of food palatability (i.e. if we’re starving any food looks delicious)
140
allostatis
allostatis—> physiological regulation of changed states
- involves positive feedback response= initial responses to a change contribute themselves to larger later responses to changes
- i.e. addicts who take drugs to escape/avoid drug withdrawal
141
behaviourist-reductionist
- S-R (stimulus-response) view: behaviourist-reductionists+
| - drives triggered by internal depletion cues and direct activation of behavior—> but is minimalistic
142
Teitelbaum
: ‘to avoid oversimplification we set a minimum criteria (bottom limits) for defining real motivation’
—> real motivation is flexible and instrumental (operant responses and learning; drives change)
143
Wallace craig
all motivated behavior has two stages:
1. appetite phase= a flexible behavior before a motivational goal is found
2. consummatory phase= goal stimulus (eating the food)
144
Epstein 1980: 3 criteria for distinguishing motivated behavior
1. flexible goal directness/means-end readiness
2. goal expectation
3. affect (the reaction to the goal itself)
145
Bolles-Bindtra-Toates Theory of Incentive motivation:
1. bolles= proposes individuals are motivated by incentive expectancies (learned expectations of reward; ’S-S associations of stimiulus and stimulus’= continued stimulus)
2. bindra= rejects idea of expectation as an important factor of belles but suggests conditioned response evokes same response to reward itself due to classical conditions; hence the CS is a reward in itself
3. Toates: suggests physiological depletion states enhance incentive value of their goal stimuli
146
Toastes IDea Study (Cabanac)
Alliesthetia (Toates idea); ‘a change in sensation’
Cabanac [27,28] showed, for example, that people gave higher subjective ratings of pleasure to the taste of sugar when they were hungry than when they had recently eaten. (Subjective rating of sensation)
147
Salience Model
- split occurs in liking/wanting as these reward circuits are different brain mechanisms:
- explains why dopamine sometimes seemed to mediates sensory pleasure but does not actually
148
Damsion on feeling vs emotion
Damasio [38] argues that emotional processes, in general, are purely objective, even though the conscious feeling of them is subjective.
‘feeling’ should be reserved for the private, mental experience of emotion’’.
‘emotion’ should be used to designate all the responses whose perception we call feeling’’.
149
steiner 1970
howed that the elemental neural circuit for generating ‘liking’ facial expressions is contained in the human brainstem
150
evidence against drive centers/dedicated neurons:
- 1. no center takes on an ENTIRE motivation (i.e. in lateral hypolamic lesions that destroy ‘hunger centers’ some aspects of hunger/eating is eventually recovered)
- 2. experiments with electrical brain stimulations; show that multiple motivations can be caused by activating a brain region (i.e. rats; might drink, be sexual or predatory aggressive)
