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Pyschology > Motivations and Emotions > Flashcards

Motivations and Emotions Flashcards

1
Q

definition of motivation

A

driving force for intaition, perssistance and goal-directed behaviour

the need/desire to do something

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2
Q

levels of motivation

A
  • immediate need
  • long term need (goals, careers)
  • physiological
  • pscyhological
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3
Q

what is a drive

A

simplification of stimulu-response relationship whereby a behaviour is innitiated

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4
Q

(6) theories of emotion?

A
  1. Instinct Theory
  2. Pyschodynamic Theory
  3. Incentive Theory
  4. Drive-Reduction Theory
  5. Arousal Theory
  6. Humanistic Theory
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5
Q

example of stimulus-response

A

stimulus= indepdnent; water deprivation

response= dependent= drinking water

the motivation= thirst for drinking

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6
Q

what theories are internal predictors of behaviour

A

drive reduction theory

arousal theory

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7
Q

what theories are external predictors of behaviour

A

incentive theory

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8
Q

which theories are both internal and external predictors of behaviour

A

huanistic theories such as Maslows

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9
Q

Instinct Theory

A

1980 William James:
all behaviour can be explained by innate instincts

evolutionary perspective; complex unlearned behaviours with fixe patterns in species

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10
Q

Pyschodynamic theory

A

1920 Freud: motivation is the battle between pleasure and death that drives behaviour

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11
Q

why is instinct theory not useful today

A
  • doesnt explain external motiators or influences on behaviour such as culture or sociality
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12
Q

Incentive Theory:

A

behaviours are reinforced by previous experiences of rewards and punishments

proposed by: Skinner 1940

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13
Q

Drive-Reduction Theory

A

behavioural drives are a state of tension caused by internal imbalances aiming to achieving equillibgirum

homeostatic/hydraulic model

by Hull 1943

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14
Q

Arousal Theory

A

behavioural drives result from arousal levels being above/below optimum hence we either are exicted/calm to achieve neutrality

by Hebb and Thompson 1954

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15
Q

what does arousal theory explain

A

why we might seek ‘senstation’ seeking activities (like sky diving)

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16
Q

Humanisitc Theory

A

we week to maximised satifaction and personal pleasure in a hierarchial structure of needs/stages; focuses on positive motives as opposed to defects

proposed by Maslow in the 1960s

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17
Q

example of how drive-reduction theory works

A

homeostatically;

having a ‘set point’ and ‘error dectection’ margins that issue autonomic responses to regulate body processes such as temperature, energy levels, hormones, etc.

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18
Q

homestostatis

A

processes that maintain an internal equillibrium

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19
Q

what key brain area plays a role in drive eduction theory

A

The hypothalmus–> it maintains homestostatis (body temp control, hormones, etc )

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20
Q

evidence for drive reduction theory

A
  1. Glucostatic Theory and Experiments
  2. biologitical and intutive
  3. adult body weight remains relatively constant
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21
Q

evidence against drive reduction theory (6)

A
  1. binge eating (like at christmas; uncontrollable eating regardles of hunger)
  2. eating disorders
  3. consuming high E foods (red bull) before eating doesnt reduce eating
  4. obesity epidemic
  5. patient RH= a man who forgot to eat
  6. doesnt address taste, learnign, visual cues/social norms (external factors) influencing hunger/eating
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22
Q

what influences what we eat

A
  1. decreased nutritive density of a diet (calories per unit)
  2. sensory specific satiety (taste)
  3. social infleunces (i.e. eating with others)
  4. serving size (misleading visual cues)
  5. (sometimes) major energy deficits; but not a factor in captilistic/food filled societies
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23
Q

Warsink 2005 Study

A

soup eating:

  1. normal bowls
  2. self-refilling bowls

people with self-refilling bowls eat 73% more than people with normal bowls= implies serving size is a avisual cue for satiety

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24
Q

Minnesotta Starvation Experiment 1944

A

young men starve by experiments to figure out how to treat famine victims of war:

results:

  1. Food became an obsession (reading cook books, planning)
  2. sexual drives dminished, weak bones, anxious and depression
  3. feeling sof guilt/binge eating food (eating disorders)
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25
Q

UCSD University Study 2015

A

people with anexorisa= feel less ‘reward’ when given food= hence HUNGER is not an incentive to eat

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26
Q

what can homeo-static theories not account for

A

hunger and other motiations caused by extenral cues;

other motivation such as sex, love, money making and approval have no clear ‘set-point’

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27
Q

Glucostatic Theory of Hunger

A

by Mayer in 2005: experiments on lab animals whereby reducing the blood sugar in lab animals (rats) through insulin injrectsiont hen increases the animals eating

this is because the hypothalmsus acts on the glucoreceptors or thermoreceptors (blood sugar reculators) to incentivize hunger/eating

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28
Q

why is hunger used as an example for drive reduction theory

A

as hunger= is a consequenc eof energy deficit due to low gluclose levels and need to stabailize body fat levels which the hypothalamus regulates

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29
Q

what does the incentive theory account for

A

non physiologial motivations and rewards for behaviour

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30
Q

olds and milner 1954 experiment

A

they identified the brains reward center accidnetally, after trying to identify how to make rats emotionally uncomfortable:

  • -> placed electrodes in rats brain and stimulated areas
  • -> the rat learned to return over and over again to a lever in a cage [positive reinforecement]

when rats given opportunity to ‘self adminisniter’ stimulations= they pressed the lever over 700 times in an hour preferring the lever over food, water and exhaustion

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31
Q

where is the reward center of the brain

A

nucleus accumbens (stratium in basal anglia); activity increases here with rewards

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32
Q

when does activity in the reward center increase (examples

A
  • drug addicts when they see pictures of drugs (paraphernalia)
  • when smokers get nicotine
  • when mothers see pics of babies (swain 2008)
  • when participants anticipate monetary rewards (knutson 2001)
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33
Q

Schaelpfer 2008 study

A

stimulated the nucleus accumbens in depressed humans and found an increase in the ANTICIPATION of positive events

demonstrates increase of WANTING a positive outcome; but not neccesarily feeling pleasure

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34
Q

wanting

A

motivational incentive value of the same reward (not a sensory experience)

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35
Q

liking

A

hedonic impact of receiving the award (brains reaction to sensory pleasure)

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36
Q

hunger incentive theory

A

humans and animals eat due to the anticipated pleasure of eating (positive reward perspective)

so EATING is a reward

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37
Q

milkner kesen 1952 study

A

rats learn to navigate a maze with milk reward incentive:

found that rats prefer to DRINK the milk as opposed to just having it pumped in stomacth

so anticipatory eating is a classically condionted response

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38
Q

how do the reward center and the hypothalmus work

A

–> hypothalamus (containing glucoreceptors) is found here in the septal region which is responsible for dopamine release that affects the nucleus accumbens activity

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39
Q

how might the hunger incentive theory be evolutionary explained

A

we have evolved to crave food in order to take advantage of when there AE fatty calories present

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40
Q

wanting vs liking

A

they go together but have different neural mechanisms

- liking= hedonic impact (brain reaction to sensory pleasure by reward)
- wanting= incentive salience (motivational incentive value of the same reward= NOT A SENSORY pleasure)
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41
Q

Maslos Hierarchial Theory: 3 main points

A
  1. humans have a wide range of needs
  2. needs vary over time
  3. needs are hierarhcial
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42
Q

Maslows Hierarhcy of Needs (the levels)

A
  1. Physyioloical (breathing, food, water, sleep, sex, homeostatis, excretion)
  2. Safety (health, moratliy, family, shelter, friends)
  3. Love/Belonging (family, freindship, sexual intimacy)
  4. Esteem (confidnece, rsepectve)
  5. Self-Actualization (creativity, morality, etc)
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43
Q

Defiency vs Growth Needs

A

Deficency needs= need to be fullfilled first as signs of deprivation (levels 1-3; from physiological to esteem)

Growth Needs= no fear of deprivation allows for individuals to fullfipple personal positive potentiatl (self actualization)

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44
Q

what does subjetive wellbeing correlate to

A

subjective wellbeing

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45
Q

limitations of maslows hierarhy of needs

A
  1. not strictly hierarchial
  2. bias towards western individualisitc ideas of personal growth; doesnt engage with reladeness/collective identity in self-actualization
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46
Q

Tay and Diener 2011

A

conducted a cross cultural study

found that self satisfcaition correlates with subjective wellbeing in hierarhcial needs-based societies

but little evdience for a direct rigid structure of needs (some needs are more important that others)

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47
Q

what is an incentive

A

a positive/negative stimuli that arouses us

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48
Q

optimal arousal

A

rather than reducing/meeting tensions or drives we are motivated to maintain a balance between stimulation and relaxation

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49
Q

what is affect

A

subjective and conscious sensation and feeling measured by PANAS questionate (affect distinguishes from emotion as its a conscious measurable feeling)

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50
Q

what is a physiological state

A

arousal (hear trate, pupils, hormones) that is determined by sympathethic nervous system

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51
Q

examples of emotional expressions

A

vocalizations, facial expressions, body expressions

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52
Q

what is a drive

A

motivations of behaviour (response/reaction)

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53
Q

what is a thought

A

a style of thinking (cognition; thinking)

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54
Q

pyschological definition of an emotion

A

a constellation of multiple factors such as affect, physiological elements, emotional expressions, drives and thoughts that can be felt by the whole body

a ‘mind-body’ response to a stimulus of some kind resultin in physiological arousal, expressive behaviour and concious experience

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55
Q

how can emotional expressions be measured

A

EMG (electromyography) electrodes measuring facial changes or frame/by/frame analysis of video recordings

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56
Q

Numenmag 2014 Study

A

asked participants to say when they felt an emotion in the body using a MAP OF THE BODY to localize emotions where people experience physiological responses

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57
Q

Ekmann + Friesen 1971 Study

A

studied facial expressions to see if there are ‘universal/basic emotions’

Method:
1. took exagerrated photos of faces and showed them to isolated new guinea tribe and a group of american researchres

  1. asked each group to correlate faces to a story

Results:

  • despite cultural differences; emotional expression not arbitrarty
  • both groups had similar conclusiosn and aggreed upon expressions
  • 6 primary emotions were identified
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58
Q

6 primary emotions

A 
anger
fear
disgust
surprise
happines
sadness
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59
Q

Secondary Emotions

A

combinations of the primary:
i.e.
anger + fear–> jealousy

fear + disgust—> shame

surprise + happiness—> delight

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60
Q

Limitations of Ekman and Freisen 1971 Study

A
  1. primary facial expressions rarely occur in pure form
  2. other primary emotions exist (trust, curiousity)
  3. body cues are also important expressions
  4. photos were exagerated
  5. recognition and expression of emotions is not as universal as variations exist (in west vs east asia; nodding heads as different meanings)
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61
Q

Russel 1980 Theory of Emotions

A

sees emotions not as caterogies but spectrums;

his ‘dimensional emotion theory’ propose that there are different dimensions of emotion combining VALENCE and AROUSAL chemas

i. e. depression is when you have negative valence and low arousal
i. e. exictement is when there is high arousal and positive valence

62
Q

PANAS

A

positive and negative affect schedule; measures affect

63
Q

key questions about emotions

A
  1. does cognition precede emotion
  2. does pyscholgoical arousal precede or follow affect
  3. does emotion=feeling
64
Q

common sense view of emotion

A

perception of a bear creats a feeling of fear resulting in a physiological reaction

first we are scared; then we react

65
Q

james lange 1884 view of emotion

A

Perception—> Physiological Reaction- (regulated by cerebral cotex)–> Feeling/Emotion

(our feeligns following bodily reactions to external stimuli)

BODY first reacts to a stiatuion in an autonomic response

so EMOTION is the PERCEPTION of the response to the stimulus and each emotion subjectively distriminates/has a unique physiological style

66
Q

canon-bard theory of emotion

A

PERCEPTION—> Physiological reaction/feeling (indepdnent)

emotions (affect)+ expressions/reaction are independent processes

emotion-arousing stimulus trigger at the same time physiological and subjective experiences of emotions

so the body response; dont specify all emotions as all emotiosn have the Same ANS response

physiological reactions are too slow to account for sudden emotions

changes in body state do not correlate with emotional state

67
Q

how was the james lange theory tested and what were the variables

A

Ax 1953: special emotions correlate with specific respones in hypertension experiment:

IV= participaints given accidental electrical shocks or insulted by technician (stimulate fear/anger emotions)

DV= physiological variabes (blood pressure, heart rate, galvanic skin response)

68
Q

canon-bard theory testing

A

testing whether autonomous system and emotional state correlate

i.e. ‘can you SMILE yourself happy’

69
Q

Strack-Martin-Stepper 1988 Study (method and variables)

A

are body states and affect indepdnent?

Method= get participants to hold pen in a mouth under the guise of pscyhomotric coordination study

IV= the pen pose (vertical or horizantal/length pose; one inhibits smiling)

DV= funniess rating of cartoon

70
Q

results of Ax 1953 tests

A

attribution of broad congruence in autonomic arousal= responses specific to certain emotiosn were elicited so PERHAPS JL is right

71
Q

limitation of strack, martin, stepper

A

participants= report emotions they THINK youre trying to get them to display= DEMAND characteristics

72
Q

Strack, Martin, Strepper 1988 results

A

cartoons were funniest when participants held the pen in teeth (vertical); so when they could smile

73
Q

Schlacter and Singer 1962 aim method and variables

A

aim= missatribution of arousal studied (physioloical and contextual cues of affect) to evalanuate JS idea that the same state should always produce the same emotion

method=
inject volunteers with aderenaline. tell 1/2 nothing and other 1/2 drug causes sweating/heart ratcing.
participants then self-report mood.

IV= infromation about adrenaline effects (expectaitons)

DV= self reported mood

74
Q

Schachter and Singer 1962 results

A

those who didnt expect arousal—> felt more euphoric/angry

demonstrates:
only physiological drive cant fully explan emotions as our expectations play a role

(named this the ‘misattribution of arousal effect’ or ‘two factor theory of emotion’)

75
Q

Duton and Aron 1974 aim, method and variables

A

aim= idetnify how we attribute our emotions to events in the real world (elaborated schalcher and singer study)

method: attractive female itnerview approahces men who just crossed a high bridge vs men who crossed it 10 minutes ago, conducts a servey and offers her phone number

iv= arousal (the time since crossing the bridge)

dv= whether men called the woman

76
Q

Duton and Aron 1974 results

A

13/20 men called when in high arousal state

5/23 called when in low arousal state

77
Q

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

A

by schlacter + singer; idea that AFFECT influenced by both physiological and contextual cues/expectations

78
Q

how was JAmes LANGE theory tested

A
  1. Schachter and Singer 1962; test idea that ANS alwaays produces same emotion
  2. Ax 1953: test whether special emotions correlate to specific responses
79
Q

limtations of schlacher and singer study

A
  • doesnt replicate real life as usualyl we can identify the external factors causing our emotions
80
Q

evaluate the james lange theory

A

but incorrect as there is NO NEED for feedback
somewhat wrong= body states dont uniequely detemrine our emotional state (as shown in Schlater-Singer study)

also patients with broken necks that dont have autonomic feedback still experience emotions

animals/peopel with nerve damage still experience emotion

broad changes in physiological arousal state= arent subtle enough to support ALL emotions

emotions can be felt faster htan physiological changes could support

emotional stimuli have 2 inepdendnent exitatory effects ((parallel/multiple conflicting emotiosn might occur)

81
Q

evaluate the canon bard theory

A

wrong as our body states DO influence our emotional sattes (as shown in strack, martin and strepper study of facial feedback effect)

emotions are inedpenent feedback

but incorrect as there is NO NEED for feedback

82
Q

modern biopyschological theory of emotion

A

FEELING + PERCEPTION+ PHYSIOLOGICAL reactions all affect each other

as emotions influence perception

and affect influences physiological reactions

83
Q

example of affect influencing physiological reactions

A

butterflies in stomacth= worse when we think about something anxious

84
Q

example of emotions influencing perception

A

higher attention in high arousal
suspescitlbe to visual allusions
criminal case studies with witness accounts

85
Q

Phineas gage

A

1848; suffered a rod in prefrontal cortex resulting in antire personality and mood change (became impulsive and unreliable)

damage in medial prefrontal lobes for planning/emotional control

86
Q

Padez 1937 investigated what

A

the limbic system! localized emotion system in the cortex of the hypohtalamus and decuded that the EMOTION SYSTEM links the cortex to the hypothalamus

87
Q

Phan 2003 Study

A

studied the limbic system; found that there was no emotion centre as multipel reactions occur

did a meta analysis of 55 neuroimages

the subcallosal cingualte more involved in sadness
amygalda more involved in fear

88
Q

what do emotions do in the brain

A

increase neuroal activity in:
motor/sensory systems
amygdalda
hypothalamus

separate brain raeas are responsible for different emotions but there is no emotion centre

89
Q

Bechara 1997: Iowa Gambling Tasks aim, methods and variables

A

aim= study whether emotion is pat of cognition/decision making

method=
pick a random card form 4 decks.
Each card has a loss/reward.
There are 2 good decks and 2 bad decks.

iv= the goodness of a deck

dv= self-reported understanding of cards/galbanic skin conductance before picking

90
Q

Bechara 1997 results

A

Pre-punishment: before first card is lost

Pre-hunch= self report has no idea

hunch= self reporter has suspision

conceptual= correctly figured out

in controls:
1. fast anticipation of the bad deck and higher galabanic skin conductance even before hunch was reported

in patients: low conceptual period/hunch and no galbanic skin conductacnce= failure to have a hunch/distinuigh good form bad decks

91
Q

Becchara 1997 controls

A

10 health people age matched

92
Q

Bechara 1997 patients

A

6 people with bilateral damage to prefrontal cortex :

showing signs of impuslesiveness, lack of skin conductance and abnormal emotions

93
Q

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

A

by Damasio:

emotional processes guide behaviour and decision making as emotions are marked certain spects of a situation where high uncertainity

emotions thus a ‘gut feeling’ or ‘somatic marker’ that occur under our awareness radar

94
Q

emotions vs reasons

A

often place in a dichotomy however emotiosn are a part of cognition as they can act as biases and frame decisions

95
Q

Klürer-Bucy Syndrome

A

when the amygadala has a lesion that results in no fear

found in monkeys with amygdalda lesions that don’t evhibit fear

96
Q

Klürer-Bucy Syndrome

A

when the amygadala has a lesion that results in no fear

found in monkeys with amygdalda lesions that don’t evhibit fear

97
Q

facial feedback hypothesis

A

tricking emotions by imitating them in facial expressions; smiling yourself happy

98
Q

Klüver-Bucy Syndrome

A

shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?

99
Q

caroal izard

A

identified 10 emotions we have since birth and says everythign else is just a combination

100
Q

2-D model of emotions

A

all emotions we feel are expressed on a spectrum combinin positive or negative velance and arousal tha affect our pyschological and bodily states

101
Q

what is arousal

A

an increase in reactivity tha tprimes us for an action

102
Q

Zasonc theory

A

all emtions are the result of putting a ‘name to our emotions’

103
Q

shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?

A

2 factor theory: to experience an emotion one must be:

  1. physically aroused
  2. cogntiviely label that arousal

aka. ‘arousal SPURS emotions but cognition DIRECTS it’

104
Q

shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?

A

2 factor theory: to experience an emotion one must be:

  1. physically aroused (experience)
  2. cogntiviely label that arousal (perception)

aka. ‘arousal SPURS emotions but cognition DIRECTS it’

105
Q

emotion epsidoes

A

used to describe emotional states beter; as emotion is a dynamic process with start, middle and end= differentiates emotions from MOODS

106
Q

mood vs emotion

A

moods are longer lasting and more of a constant state with not a direct stimulus

107
Q

what is a ‘feeling’

A

a subjective experience of emotional arousal, often conscious and verbalizable

108
Q

emotions vs emotional expressions

A

emotion= conscious feeling

emotional expression= can be faked

109
Q

emotional triad

A

feeling + physioloigy + expression

110
Q

Crisis Response

A

posulate that the ‘emotional triad’ interacts in specific ways during an episode to allow for an organism to interact

111
Q

nummenmaa 2016

A

produced a heat drive map based on semantic feelings associating thought sor styles of thinking (why you might be angry)

112
Q

Wundt 1874

A

tridimesnional system to charactersize nature of emotinal feelign states by adding exictment vs depression and tension vs relaxation

113
Q

hebb + thompson 1979

A

show evolutionary signfance of emotions as humans are the most ‘emotional animals’ but also mos t’rational beings’

114
Q

darwin on emotions

A

he argues emotions serve as useful indicators of animal signall to prep for adaptive behaviour (i.e. primates communicate aggression by gaze)

115
Q

why do we have emotions

A
  1. evoultaionry signfnance (hebb thompson)
  2. adaptive function (darwin)
  3. regulation of social interactions (primates and agggression)
  4. making decisions and information processining
  5. behavioural flexilibty (stimlus and response)
  6. regulate and control subsystems in emotional episodes
116
Q

philosophical notions of emotions

A

infromation about a situation alone= does not allow the prediction of the emotion

(i.e. a person evlautes an emotion in respect to the needs/goals of an event)

117
Q

Sham Rage

A

aggresive + inapproroate responses of animals at a particular target (like the cats with removed cerebral hemisphers)

118
Q

hypothalamus + cortex is responsible for

A

shanley schacter and jerome signer theory?

119
Q

cognitive theory of emotion

A
  • accepts the JL fundamendal idea that emotions= reported feelings= roles in peripheral nervous system
  • doubts idea that that emotions are differentiated patterns (suggest precpetion of high arousal also elicits emotions/feeling)
120
Q

Aprraisal theory

A

appraisal is a process= changing reapprasials and first impressions vs secondar appraisals)

  1. the goal (primary)
  2. the consequences (secondary) changing future goals
121
Q

what are apprisal criteria used for

A

to evaluate emotion ante-cedant events (novelty/expectendess of an event and how to react)

122
Q

Lazarus

A

came up with appraisal model and said it was transacational:

(signfnitiave of event not just by goals/needs/resources but an interaction of nature of emotion and result of transation)

123
Q

emotion blends

A

when a person gives rise to a mixture of several emotions at a time

124
Q

appraisal theory and culture differences

A

apprsail criteria is defined by cultural defined goals and values

socio cultural value systems affect emotional life (indivdualistic vs emotional life)

125
Q

Walbott Sherer Study 1995

A

evaluated 37 countries and apprasial critera=

in individualistic cultures= little differences between shame/guilt and both cases seen asimmoral

in collectivist cultures= guilt judged as immoral that events that produce shame (shame is intense and brief whereas in invidiaulistic cultures shame and guilt are involved in SELF evaluation )

126
Q

discrete emotion theories

A

there are a limited number of ‘discrete emotions’ that our innate neural motor systems exceeute at appropriate stimualtions

127
Q

heuristics definition

A

any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method, not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, logical, or rational, but instead sufficient for reaching an immediate goal.

128
Q

african cultures and belief of emotions

A

attribute greater EXTERNAL causality/immorality to emoiton inducing events

maybe= sorcery; belief structure assigning moral blam eto the ‘unnatural’

129
Q

african cultures and belief of emotions

A

attribute greater EXTERNAL causality/immorality to emoiton inducing events

maybe= sorcery; belief structure assigning moral blam eto the ‘unnatural’

130
Q

wundt on culture and emotion

A

emotional expression subject to cultural control= ‘display rules’

131
Q

Hoschchild on emotions

A

‘positive feeling rules’ intenstify aprpropiate feelings in certain social itnerests (so faking becomes real)

132
Q

physiological changes of emotiosn

A
  1. changes in physiological states= dont always serve communicatory prurpose
  2. primary function to give energy and prepare for an action (so emotions are specialm mechanisms in CNS to produce physiological changes)
133
Q

polygraphy

A

a measure of investigation how the ANS indexes emotions to infer the truth of subjects responses (‘mock crime; innocent vs guilty participants whereby examine interrorages and tries to see whos lying)

134
Q

how can u tell someone is lying

A

control-question technique and lie detector

but it just detects EMOTIONS and not LIES

135
Q

what is the limbic system

A

a collection of nuclei/tracts bordering the thalamaus whereby emotional states are expressed by action so fothe rlimbic systems on the hypthalamus

136
Q

leptin

A

Lesions to ventromedial hypothalamus creates a leptin deficit which interferes with out hunger ‘set points’

137
Q

Solomons opponent process theory of motivation:

A

homeostatic logic applies to brain hedonic systems that mediate different types of motivation

Opponent-process drive concept—> all hedonic stimuli activate not only the direct reaction int he brain but also an opponent process of hedonic valance: i.e. heroein

  1. A process; all the PLEASANT heroine stimuli activates the reward circus (a positive affective reaction )
  2. B process: reduces the A state and creates tolerance/diminishment of brain pleasure= b process gets strengthened as heroein is used
138
Q

contradictions of homeostatic without homeostatic mechansnims:

A
  • motivation often taken to be ‘decreased’ if trigger is found and mediated.
  • home-static outcomes can be reached without homeostatic outcomes
  • anticipatory motivation also influences it (thirst increases around a mealtime)
    • looks homeostatic but also externally/socially led
  • Setlling-point: a stable state caused by a balance of opposing forces without setpoint/error detection (i.e. sea level has not homeostatic set point but is maintained= self maintaining equilibrium without a constant set point)
139
Q

Robert Bolles (1980);

A

argues that hunger/eating has no homeostatic mechanism;

  • body weight set point doesn’t exist; thus hunger can’t be triggered by any error deviation from a set point
  • body weight simply ‘settles’ around a point that is moderately stable (determined by internal appetite + satiety mechanisms AND availability of food/external factors)
    • i.e. obesity; internal ‘set points’ the same but external appetite/satiety mechanisms and food availability changed
    • bodyweight maintained by perception of food palatability (i.e. if we’re starving any food looks delicious)
140
Q

allostatis

A

allostatis—> physiological regulation of changed states

  • involves positive feedback response= initial responses to a change contribute themselves to larger later responses to changes
  • i.e. addicts who take drugs to escape/avoid drug withdrawal
141
Q

behaviourist-reductionist

A
  • S-R (stimulus-response) view: behaviourist-reductionists+

- drives triggered by internal depletion cues and direct activation of behavior—> but is minimalistic

142
Q

Teitelbaum

A

: ‘to avoid oversimplification we set a minimum criteria (bottom limits) for defining real motivation’
—> real motivation is flexible and instrumental (operant responses and learning; drives change)

143
Q

Wallace craig

A

all motivated behavior has two stages:

  1. appetite phase= a flexible behavior before a motivational goal is found
  2. consummatory phase= goal stimulus (eating the food)
144
Q

Epstein 1980: 3 criteria for distinguishing motivated behavior

A
  1. flexible goal directness/means-end readiness
  2. goal expectation
  3. affect (the reaction to the goal itself)
145
Q

Bolles-Bindtra-Toates Theory of Incentive motivation:

A
  1. bolles= proposes individuals are motivated by incentive expectancies (learned expectations of reward; ’S-S associations of stimiulus and stimulus’= continued stimulus)
  2. bindra= rejects idea of expectation as an important factor of belles but suggests conditioned response evokes same response to reward itself due to classical conditions; hence the CS is a reward in itself
  3. Toates: suggests physiological depletion states enhance incentive value of their goal stimuli
146
Q

Toastes IDea Study (Cabanac)

A

Alliesthetia (Toates idea); ‘a change in sensation’
Cabanac [27,28] showed, for example, that people gave higher subjective ratings of pleasure to the taste of sugar when they were hungry than when they had recently eaten. (Subjective rating of sensation)

147
Q

Salience Model

A
  • split occurs in liking/wanting as these reward circuits are different brain mechanisms:
    • explains why dopamine sometimes seemed to mediates sensory pleasure but does not actually
148
Q

Damsion on feeling vs emotion

A

Damasio [38] argues that emotional processes, in general, are purely objective, even though the conscious feeling of them is subjective.

‘feeling’ should be reserved for the private, mental experience of emotion’’.

‘emotion’ should be used to designate all the responses whose perception we call feeling’’.

149
Q

steiner 1970

A

howed that the elemental neural circuit for generating ‘liking’ facial expressions is contained in the human brainstem

150
Q

evidence against drive centers/dedicated neurons:

A
    1. no center takes on an ENTIRE motivation (i.e. in lateral hypolamic lesions that destroy ‘hunger centers’ some aspects of hunger/eating is eventually recovered)
    1. experiments with electrical brain stimulations; show that multiple motivations can be caused by activating a brain region (i.e. rats; might drink, be sexual or predatory aggressive)

Pyschology (13 decks)

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