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Pyschology > Learning + Memory > Flashcards

Learning + Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Memory Definition

A

a change in behaviour brought by expierence (the changed neural wiring)

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2
Q

Learning Defintion

A

the process by which memory is acquired

forming of asoociations and rewriign of neruons

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3
Q

3 key processes of memory

A

encoding
storage
retrieval

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4
Q

what is encoding

A

active process of selecting and summarizaing/writing sensory information into sensory stages (bringing memories into storage)

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5
Q

what is storage

A

funcional and atomical sub-systems where memory is retained

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6
Q

what is retrieval

A

active process of reconstructing information according to current needs

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7
Q

what is the simplest memory idea and what are its issues

A

storage of an entire perceptual uni

“remember everything”; no clear reasons why we have to remember everything as its INEFFECTIE and COSTLY

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8
Q

how does learning in neurons occur

A

by long-term potentation

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9
Q

common metaphors for memory

A

wax tabular
book
computer

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10
Q

theory of neural computation

A

neurons weight incoming signals according to the rules each has learned and fire as a result if a threshold has been reached

A NEURON BALANCES EXTICTATORY + INHIBITOTRY SIGNALS FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES TO DECIDE A COURSE OF ACTION

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11
Q

how is an action potential fired

A

the dendrites; collect electrical signals

the cell body: integrates the signals and forms input to output

axons= pass the electrical signals to the dendries of another cell

if the other cell gets excited= it fires and sends signal downcell

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12
Q

are signals on neurons fixed?

A

nope! modullated by weights (some neurons have a stronger influence on the central neuron than others)

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13
Q

what did donald hebb proporse

A

hebbs rule

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14
Q

Hebbs Rule

A

‘neurons that fire together wire together’; strength increases between neurons that fire/connet more

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15
Q

explain hebbs rule

A

strength of a connectino between two neurons can change depending on the frequeuncy that neuron is stimulated

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16
Q

apply hebbs rule to pavlovs dog experiment

A

connectinn occurs between the bell (conditioned stimulus) and the salivary response (conditionited response) due to repeated firing together

–> the dog ‘learns’ that the bell predicts food

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17
Q

what did Bliss & Lomo 2973 do

A

confirmed hebbs rule experimentally using rabbits

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18
Q

BLISS + LOMO experiment

A

placed electrons into the pre/post synaptic neurons in the hippocampus of a rabbit:

stimulated the PREsynaptic electron and recordered the output in the post synaptic electrode

found that a change in membranbe potential was reached as forced firing made connections stronger

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19
Q

long term potentation

A

pre-sypnaptic (input) neurons become more effective after repeated high-frequency stimulation

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20
Q

Key Researchers of Learning

A

Pavolv + Classiical Conditioning

Thormdike + Law of Effect

J.b. Watson and Behaviourist Manifesto

BG Skinner and Operant Contioning

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21
Q

what is classifical conditioning

A

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

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22
Q

what is an unconditionited stimulus

A

something that automatically elecits a response

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23
Q

what is an unconditionited response

A

the reflexive resonse

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24
Q

what is a conditionted stimulus

A

some inititially behaviourally neutral thing

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25
Q

what is a conditionted response

A

same as the uncondiionted response but now in response to the conditionted stimulus

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26
Q

explain the phases of the learning curve

A

in regarsd to the strength of a condtiointed response:
1. increases with increased pairing/acquistioing

  1. decreases if stimuli is less unpaired leadining to extinction
  2. however partial recovery is faster (allows for stimulus to return after a break)
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27
Q

explain pavlovs dog experiment

A

UC= food

NS= belll

UR= Salivation

C= food and bell

After= bell becomes conditiontied stimulus to cause drooling in the dog

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28
Q

what is operant conditionign

A

a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment

by b.f. skinner

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29
Q

what did B.F Skinner do to study learning and what was his aim

A

aim= influence of rewards and punishments on learning

studied= developed a box to stick rats/pideons in whereby rewards/punishments were given (electrical shocks or food)

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30
Q

Positive vs Negative Reinforcenment

A

positive= something is added

negative= something is taken away

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31
Q

good vs bad reinforcenment

A

good= something nice

bad= something not nice

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32
Q

example: positive-good reinforcement

A

a rat gets food

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33
Q

example: postiive-bad reinforcement

A

a rat gets a shock

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34
Q

example: negative-good reinforcement

A

no shock is given to the rat

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35
Q

example: negative-bad reinforcement

A

no food is given to a rat

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36
Q

what is acquistiiong

A

performance of a selected behaviour that increase is reinforced or decreases if punished with the number of behaviour-consequence pairings

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37
Q

what is excintion

A

perfromance of a behaviour that returns to baseline if no longer paired with consequences (however sponteaneous recovery is possible)

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38
Q

describe the different schedules of reward

A
  1. intrevals
  2. variables

(can be fixed or variable)

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39
Q

contrast classical and operant conditioning (7)

A

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

  1. automatic/involuntary response of target
  2. the reinforcement is present regardless of response
  3. behaviour depends on physiological responses/(ELICITED)
  4. Russia
  5. Pavlov and dog bell
  6. also known as respondent conditioning
  7. signal before reflex

OPERANT CONDITIONIGN

  1. voluntary response of target
  2. reinforcement as a consequence of behaviour
  3. behaviour depends on skeletcal muscles (emitted)
  4. USA
  5. BF Skinner and Box
  6. Instrumental Conditiniong
  7. Stimulus occurs AFTER behaviour
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40
Q

what is ‘generalisation of learning’

A

whether you apply the same learned response to similar stimulus;

tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus
i.e. when we eat red berries that make us sick= we are also suspicious of purple berries

i. e. in classical; would different bell sounds also elicit salivation?
i. e. in operant= would different coloured levers elicit the same pressure?

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41
Q

what is ‘generalize’

A

apply learning to most situations

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42
Q

what is ‘discriminate’

A

apply learning selectively to situations

: tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical
i.e. dogs only respond to ONE type of tone when hearing bell

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43
Q

what does a sensible organism do in regards to learning-selectivity

A

somewhat generalizes/somewaht descirminates their learning

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44
Q

what did Shepard 1987 come up with

A

the universal law of generalization

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45
Q

what is the universal law of generalization

A

as a stimulus becomes super different from trained version the learning response expotnentially reduces

similitartie= generalization applies when similar fonduatino of concepts/caterogies

we create pyschosocial caterogiesin learning of similar concepts

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46
Q

what did jb watson suggest

A

tabula rasa 1930= championed BEHAVIOURISM; that humans ar blank slates at birth that acquire every skill by learning (nurture)

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47
Q

behaviourism

A

behaviour can be explained by environment (stimulus and response)

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48
Q

history of memory

A
  1. used to be seen as a monolithic procsss
  2. dissociation/localization events (broca and wernicke) in 1880s
  3. until 1960s= memory not seen as a specialized/localize function
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49
Q

damages to Broca area causes…

A

nonfluent aphasia

50
Q

damages to Wernickes area causes…

A

fluent aphasia

51
Q

tree of human memory

A

human memory split into different caterogies (sensory, short term and long term)

52
Q

sensory memory

A

<1 min long
iconic (visual)
echoic (auditory)
etc

53
Q

short term memory

A

< 1 min long

54
Q

long term memory

A

throughout lifetime: split into explicit and implicit

55
Q

explic memory

A

conscious; split ito declarative memory (facts and events)

56
Q

declatative memory

A

splits into episodic and semantic memory
episodic= events/experiences
semantic= facts and concepts

57
Q

implicit memory

A

unconcious memory; splits into preocedrual memory (skills and tasks)

58
Q

what did penfield look at

A

architectural placement of memory in the brain

59
Q

Penfields experiments

A

1940s; stimulated the temporal lobes of epileptic patients who then reported have vivid memories of the past

this sparked the idea memory was logalized in brain area

but people still skeptical untill amensia patients with localized lesions had memory issues

60
Q

Who was Patient H.M.

A

henry molaison= the most studied neuroligcal patient ever

he had surgery for severe epilepy at age 27 where both his hippocampus, amygdalda and cortex of medial lobe where removed

and then had anterrogate amenia

61
Q

What is wrong with Patient H.M.

A

he had anterrogate amensia (cant create new memories)

his motor/pereptual and regtrogate memories are all okay but he cane rmember new facts and remember people and events for very long

62
Q

where does epilsely normally occur

A

in the lower temporal lobes

63
Q

what DOES patient hm have

A
  1. motor function/long term memory

2. some ‘short term memory’

64
Q

Digit Span Test

A

quantified short term memory
tells participants to repeat back a set of numbers (i.e. 1, 7, 2, 5, 6, —> 1, 7, 2,5, 6, 7, 7,… etc)

DV= number of digits

normal patients- 15

henry= 7

65
Q

Digit Span test + HM results

A

could only get up to ‘7’ numbers

cant move stuff from short term to long term storage (disccoiation of memory)

66
Q

how was procedural memory of patient hm quantified

A

using a mirror drawing test

67
Q

mirror drawing test

A

method= patients trace an outline of a star and see hand in mirror; do this 10 times in 3 days

dvs= number of errors

68
Q

mirror drawing test + HM

A

he got better as he kept doing the test (low quality initially) however he had no memory of ever having done the test before

shows he still had procedural memory (so he lasts EXPLICIT memory)

69
Q

what did Drachman and Arabit do in 1996

A

digit span test on henry

70
Q

What did Milner do in 1986

A

the mirror drawing test on henry

71
Q

how was henry long term memory prservation affected

A

he lacks explicit, conscious learning memory but still retains implicit memory (unconcious, motor)

72
Q

who was patient KC

A
  • had a damaged medial temporal lobe
  • still had perceptual, motor, cognitive abilities but no explicit memory
  • had SEVERE RETROGADE AMNESIA
73
Q

how was patient KC tested

A

old photos of childhood were shown by Rosenbaum and KC was asked to describe semantic info

74
Q

semantic memory

A

who and what (facts)

75
Q

episodic memory

A

whats happneing, why, when, etc.

76
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

memories of EVENTS (semantic)

77
Q

Rosenbaum 2005 test results

A

patient KC: can only remember episodic information (the WHAT) but not semantic (how/why, where, etc)

78
Q

what is iconic memory

A

visual sensory memory that requires information in visual domain (sensory memor= fast storage of visual information)

79
Q

hypothesis of iconic memory

A

we have brief but high capaticity for VISUAL memory but the problem is our memory will ahve decayed during the time it takes to report stimulus in experiments

80
Q

what did sperling do

A

partial report method

81
Q

explain the partial report method

A

participants identify a subset of characters from a visual display using cued recall

a cue is a tone at various time intervals prior to a stimulus

82
Q

what brain areas of patient HM were affected

A

hippocampus
medial temporal lob cortex
amydalda

83
Q

further evidence for localized memory in monkeys

A

With same lesions= have perserved cognition but anterrogate amneia

monkesy with just amygdalda lesion= decreased fear/learning capacity but preserved plac-object memory and learning

monkeys with himmpocampus/temporal lob lesions= impaired place-object learning

84
Q

what is the hippocampus for

A

memory consodliatin

85
Q

what brain area is for long term memory of storage

A

long term storage (face, object-specific)

86
Q

what can patient HM still do

A

rembmer facts/episodes before event
cognitive and motor function
can still form IMPLICIT memoryes (motor, emotion, perceptual)

87
Q

what did Loftus, Coan and Picnell 1996 look at

A

studied how retrieval functions by reconstructing infrmation from what we record

88
Q

retreival construction of information studies

A

show people short stories of their childhood (1/4 are false) and ask them to return the next day and see what they remembered

eyewitness testimoites therefore questionable (as not facts and memory is unreliable)

89
Q

Loftus-Coan-Picknell Study and Results

A

people who returned= 25% people remember ‘false details’ about fake stories

90
Q

how does ‘mental time travel’ affect patient KC

A

patient kc cant imagine self doing stuff in the ftuure either= planining/ahead and imatation affected

91
Q

types of associative learnign

A

classican and operant conditoining whereby brain adapts behaviour to environmental circumstances

92
Q

issue with learning

A

synaptic placitiity= as learning can be ‘rewired’ (stroke victims)

93
Q

types of learning

A

insight
trial and error
conditioning
teaching

94
Q

Conditioning is evolutionary beneficial because…

A
  • allows organisms to develop expectations to prep them for food or bad events
  • i.e. knowing a certain food makes you sick (Cs= smell, US=food)
95
Q

Second-Order Conditioning

A

when an EXISTING conditioned stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulus
i.e. presenting a black square with the sound; dogs salivate to black square alone even if it itself had never been presented with the food.

96
Q

why do phobias occur

A

in nature: classical conditioning creates phobias!
Phobia—> “a strong and irrational fear of specific object/activitiy/situation”

—> phobias to snakes/spiders; are evolutionary concerns; so SOME PHOBIAS are more likely to develop associations than others as more of a concern.

97
Q

Join Garcia et all 1996 Experiment

A

ood conditioning

  • give a taste as neutral stimulus before giving rats a drug that makes them nauseous
  • garcia; discovered that taste continuing is very powerful (rats learn to avoid taste associated with illness drug even if illness occurs MUCH LATER)
98
Q

Thorndikes Puzzlebox:

A

researcher places cats in a box.
don’t know how to get out.
figure out that lever opens box= get out and claim fish!
second time cats put in box= less vicious attempts to get out
third time= cats just press lever and leave

99
Q

Thorndikes law of effect

A

his law of effect; responses that typically create a pleasant outcome in a situation are more likely to occur again in as similar situation whereas responses that produce an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur in the station.

100
Q

fixed ratios

A
  • behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses (factory workers paid by amount of products produced)
    • high levels of responsiveness
101
Q

variable ratios

A
  • behavior is reinforced after an average (but unpredictable) number of responses (payoffs from slot machines in games of change)
    • produce higher rates of responding as reinforcement increases as number of responses increases
102
Q

fixed intreval ratio

A
  • behavior is reinforced for the first response after ra specific amount of time has passed (monthly salary)
    • reinforces appear on an interval schedule but timing is varied around average interval, making actual appearance of reinforce unpredictable= produce slow/steady rates of responding
103
Q

variable intreval ration

A
  • behavior is reinforced for the first response after an average amount of time has passed (checking voice mail)
    • reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific mouth of time has based= animals tend to slow down responding and increase behavior as next reinforcements gets closer
    • a behavior is reinforced after a specific number of response: hence animal learns to act in accordance
104
Q

what is insight learning

A

sudden understanding of a solution to a problem

105
Q

what did Wolfgang Kohler do

A

bserved that when chimps are presented with a problem not easy to solve (i.e. placing food in an area too high in cage to be reached):

—> chimps engage in trial and error first
—> then fail; sit and contemplate
—> after contemplation: seem to known how to solve problem (use stick to knock food down or stand on chair)

Kohler—> calls this INSIGHT learning

106
Q

Latent learning:

A

learning that is not reinforced/not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

107
Q

what did Edward Tolman do

A

LATENT LEARNING:

Edward Tolman: looks at 3 rats navigating a maze:

  1. group 1= gets food award at end
  2. group 2= gets no reward
  3. group 3= get a reward but only on day 11

Rats in group 1= fasted (conditioning)
rats in group 2= wander aimlessly
rats in group 3= wander aimlessly for 10 days and then learn at day 11 and instantly catch up with group 1

108
Q

Observation learning:

A

Observation learning: learning by observing others

109
Q

why is observation learning useful

A
  • useful for animals/people to learn what is risky and what is successfully
  • i.e. monkeys see other monkeys be afraid of snake= become afraid themselves despite never seeing ga snake (Cook and Mineka, 1990)
110
Q

persistant learning

A

information that has been stored and recalled

111
Q

recall definition

A

a measure of memory in which th epreson must retrive information learned earlier

112
Q

recognition

A

a measure of memory in which the prson needs only idefntify items previously learned

113
Q

relearning

A

a measure of memory that assures the amount of time saved when learnign something again

114
Q

what do Richard Takinson and Shiffard to

A

break memory into 3 stages of encoding, storage and retreival

115
Q

what is working memory

A

rebised version of short term memory= the conscious active processing of information from auditory/visio-spatial information to long temr meory

  • aditory
  • central-execeutiv
  • visual and spatial
116
Q

explicti memory

A

memory of facts/edperiences one can consciously know and declare

117
Q

implicit memory

A

retention indepdnent of conscious (behaviour or conditioning)

118
Q

Pscyholinguistics:

A

ooks at psychology of language

119
Q

Origins of language:

A
  • 2 million years ago when Homo sapiens diverged
  • Broca area already present in early hominoid brain
  • humans ‘vocal apparatus adapted to make speech sounds’ [articulatory apparatus]
120
Q

possible explanations for evolution of language

A
  • evolution by selection= language as side effect to use more complexx manual gestures (like tool)
    • arose as byproduct of increase of brain size (choosy)
    • Paget: lagnague evolved due to connection of hand and vocal gestures connection or FREED hands from using gestures
121
Q

what is language for?

A
  • communication as a social activity

- shapes our perception and cognition (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

122
Q

semantic priming

A

bread and butter are associatioted

facilitation= priming increases semantic association
(inhibition= priming decreases semantic association)

Pyschology (13 decks)

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