Motivation & Emotion Flashcards
Motivation
The impetus that gives purpose or direction to behavior and operates in humans at a conscious or unconscious level.
Internal processes that initiate, direct, and sustain activities.
Theories of motivation
Instinct theory - Individuals are driven to perform certain behaviors based on pre-programmed, evolutionary-based instincts; derived from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Drive-reduction theory - Behavior is “pushed” from within by drives stemming from basic biological needs to achieve homeostasis
Arousal theory - Human beings seek an optimal level of arousal, not minimal levels of arousal.
Expectancy theory - Behaviour is ‘pulled’ by expectation of external incentives (desirable outcomes)
Goal-setting theory - Motivation is strongly influenced by attaining goals.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
- A law stating that the relation between motivation (arousal) and performance can be represented by an inverted U-curve
- The level of arousal beyond which performance declines depending on task difficulty
Opponent-process theory
A theory that a stimulus or event simultaneously arouses a primary affective state, which may be pleasurable or aversive, and an opponent (opposite) affective state, which serves to reduce the intensity of the primary state: These two states together constitute emotional experience.
Baseline –> Peak of state A –> Decline of A to steady pace –> Peak of state B –> Decline of B to baseline
Eg: Drug addiction
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- Physiological, safety, belongingness [deficiency needs]
- Esteem & self-actualization [growth needs]
- Needs to be satisfied in particular order
Social motives
- Needs that are learnt in social groups from experience with parents, and are characteristic of the person; strength differs amongst individuals
- Need for achievement, affiliation & power
Need for achievement
- Need to do better/improve oneself
- Engagement in moderately challenging tasks
- Prefers personal responsibility, feedback used to improve behaviour
Need for affiliation
- Need for establishing, maintaining and repairing friendships
- Takes on opportunities to be with friends
Measurement of social motives
TAT
Questionnaires
Situational tests
Traits of people with high need for achievement
- Prefer to work on moderately challenging tasks
- Prefer tasks where performance can be compared with that of others; merit-based system
- Desire feedback from others
- Like to have some control on outcome
- Persistent on working on tasks perceived as career-related or getting ahead
Social power
The ability or capacity of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour or emotions of another person
Power motivation & behaviour
- Impulsive & aggressive action
- Participation in competitive sports
- Joining and holding office in organizations
- Males drinking and sexually dominating women
- Obtaining and collecting possessions
- Associating with people who are more easily controlled
- Choosing occupations of influence like teaching or business
- Building and disciplining bodies [women]
Machiavellianism
Expression of power motivation by manipulating and exploiting others through deceptive & unscrupulous method
Show low warmth, little interest in ideologies, weakly guided by conventional morality & reality-oriented
Aggression
Behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically
Physical/verbal, active/passive, direct/indirect
Hostile aggression
Any form of behaviour with the goal of harming or injuring another being who is motivated to avoid such treatment
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Proposed by John Dollard that (a) frustration always produces an aggressive urge and (b) aggression is always the result of prior frustrations
Aggression through learning
Observational learning: behaviour of models
Instrumental learning: when aggressive behaviour is rewarded
Classical conditioning: when aggression-arousing situations are paired with stimulus, individual learns to be aggressive to stimulus; generalization of action to similar stimuli
Social sources of frustration
Feelings of injustice, direct provocation, exposure to violence in media [desensitization]
Conflict-produced frustration
When expression of one motive interferes with expression of another motive
Environmental factors of frustration
High temperatures, disagreeable crowding, loud irritating noises
Approach-approach conflict
Conflict between two positive and equally desirable goals
Usually resolved by competed one and then the other OR choosing one and giving up the other
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Presence of two undesirable goals
Person will attempt to run away from situation. Rely on imagination of a less stressful time. Or regression.
Eg: choosing between unemployment and a salary cut
Avoidance-approach conflict
A situation involving a single goal or option that has both desirable and undesirable aspects or consequences. The closer an individual comes to the goal, the greater the anxiety, but withdrawal from the goal then increases the desire.
Eg: marriage
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation to perform activities because they are rewarding in and of themselves
Emotion
A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event.
- Physiological changes: change in level of arousal
- Cognitive states: subjective interpretation of feelings experienced
- expressive Behaviours: facial expression & body language
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
A theory of emotion suggesting that emotion- provoking events produce various physiological reactions and that recognition of these, is responsible for subjective emotional experiences.
Bodily changes precede emotional experience.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
A theory of emotion suggesting that various emotion-provoking events simultaneously produce physiological arousal and subjective reactions labeled as emotions.
Hypothalamus is activated and sends output in two direction: 1) internal body organs and external muscles for physical expression of emotion 2) cerebral cortex where emotion is felt
Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion
A theory of emotion suggesting that our subjective emotional states are determined, at least in part, by the cognitive labels we attach to feelings of arousal; also known as two-factor theory.
1) perception of emotion-inducing situation 2) aroused bodily state arises which is ambiguous 3) interpretation of this bodily state to fit situation
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
A hypothesis indicating that facial expressions can produce change in emotional states.
Sympathetic nervous system
Part of ANS. Active during aroused states. Releases epinephrine & norepinephrine.
Role of epinephrine & norepinephrine
EP - Mobilizes glucose into blood to go to brain and muscles. Increases heart rate.
NEP - Constricts peripheral blood vessels to increase blood pressure
Parasympathetic nervous system
Part of ANS. Activated during relaxed meditative state. Decreases heart rate, reduces blood pressure & diverts blood to digestive tract.
Somatic nervous system
Part of the PNS. Changes in breathing, muscle tension, posture. Prepare for fight-flight response.
Relaxation response
Reduced activity of the sympathetic and somatic nervous system and increase activity in parasympathetic nervous system.
Brain & emotion
Arousal caused (in part) by increased activation of cerebral cortex, limbic system and hypothalamus.
Nerve fibres from reticular formation ascend upwards to reach emotion centre of the brain (ascending reticular activation system - ARAS)
Arousal
A state of physiological activation or cortical responsiveness, associated with sensory stimulation and activation of fibres from the reticular activating system.
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
A change in the electrical properties (conductance or resistance) of the skin in reaction to stimuli, owing to the activity of sweat glands located in the fingers and palms. Though strictly an indication of physiological arousal, the galvanic skin response is widely considered a reflection of emotional arousal and stress as well.
Stress
The physiological or psychological response to internal or external stressors. Involves changes affecting nearly every system of the body, influencing how people feel and behave.
Processes in the resistance stage of GAS
Body resists the effects of continuous stressor.
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in hypothalamus releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
ACTH activates outer layer of adrenal gland to release cortisol.
Cortisol promotes formation of glucose by breaking down fats and protein. Can be harmful long term, leading to shortage of protein which hampers new cell formation.
Impairs body defense system.
Imprinting
Introduced by Konrad Lorenz, worked with baby geese
Form an attachment to the first moving object they see or hear soon after birth by following that object, which is usually their mother.
Drive reduction theory
By Clark Hull
Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives such as hunger, thirst, or sex.
The is called the satiety center, or “off” button, for hunger.
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
- when removed, organism keeps eating non-stop
The ____ part of the hypothalamus is originally called the “on” button for hunger.
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
- when removed, organism would not eat and even starve to death
The _____ part of the brain influences aggression and fear.
Amygdala
The left hemisphere is more closely associated with ____ emotions, and the right with _____ emotions.
positive, negative
Cognitive Appraisal Theory
Richard Lazarus
Our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in. In primary appraisal, we assess potential consequences of the situation, and in secondary appraisal, we decide what to do.
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm - body increases sympathetic nervous system activity and activates the adrenal glands to prepare us for fight or flight
Resistance - our temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration remain high while the level of hormones, such as adrenalin and corticosteroids, continues to rise.
Exhaustion - depletion of our resources and decreased immunity to diseases
Three characteristics of the Type A personality that have been found to be positively correlated with heart disease are:
Anger, hostility, and cynicism
____ found at least seven basic facial expressions are universally recognized by people in diverse cultures all over the world.
Paul Ekman
- Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger.
- Cultures differ in norms for regulating emotional expression.
Set point
Certain level of body fat our bodies try to maintain throughout our lives
Fixed action pattern
An innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in a specific environmental condition
Instinct
An innate, species-specific biological force that impels an organism to do something, particularly to perform a certain act or respond in a certain manner to specific stimuli.
Inborn, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli.
Types of drives
Primary: Food, water, warmth - things to keep the body in homeostasis
Secondary: Drives that motivate you to act as though you have unmet basic needs. Eg: money
Yerkes-Dodson experiment
Rats were motivated to complete a maze with slight electric shocks. With higher shocks, performance dropped.
Hunger process
Nervous & endocrine system regulate hunger levels.
When blood sugar drops, brain sends message of being hungry.
When glucose levels rise, pancreas secretes insulin [helps cells metabolize sugar]. Insulin gives sign that body is full.
Social & cultural factors also impact hunger.
____ graded scale was created to define a person’s sexuality.
Kinsey Scale
Four-stage human sexual response cycle
By William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Excitement-plateau-orgasm-resolution
Men and women experience similar physical responses to sex.
Which hormone stimulates development of milk-secreting cells in the breasts?
Progesterone
____ are any of a class of steroid hormones that act as the principal male sex hormones; are produced mainly by the testes and influence the development of masculine sex characteristics.
Androgens
Eg: Testosterone
____ is any of a class of steroid hormones that are produced mainly by the ovaries and act as the principal female sex hormones.
Estrogen
Cognitive appraisal by Richard Lazarus
Subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
Primary appraisal - Evaluation of environment & threat. Eustress or distress.
Secondary appraisal - Evaluation of being able to cope. Assessments of harm (damage caused), threat (potential for future damage) & challenge (potential to overcome stressor).
Work motivation
The desire or willingness to make an effort in one’s work.
Motivating factors may include salary and other benefits, desire for status and recognition, a sense of achievement, relationships with colleagues, and a feeling that one’s work is useful or important.
