Memory Flashcards
Part of Cog psych
Memory
The ability to retain information or a representation of past experience, based on the mental processes of learning or encoding, retention across some interval of time, and retrieval or reactivation of the memory.
Mental processes involved in memory
Encoding [receiving input and transforming it into code to be stored]
Storage [placing code in memory]
Retrieval [gaining access to stored coded info when needed]
Atkinson & Shiffrin three-stage model of memory
Sensory input –> sensory register –> STM –> Rehearsal –> LTM
Sensory register
- Storage function of sensory channels
- Info is stored for short period of time before decaying
- Visual: 11-16 items for 1 second
- Auditory: 4-5 seconds
Short term memory
- Information is stored for 30 seconds
- Limited storage capacity (7 +/- 2)
STM experiment
- Subjects asked to recall 15 nouns presented to them for 1 second with 2 second gap between.
- 2 situations: Zero delay condition and delay condition (with mental counting in delay)
Chunking
The process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in STM.
Retrieval of info in STM
Rapid scanning of all information in STM, that continues even after info is found, until all info is examined.
Rehearsal
Repetition of information in an attempt to maintain it longer in memory. More rehearsals, more likely to go to LTM.
Elaborative rehearsal more effective than maintenance rehearsal.
Spaced repetition, active recall.
Semantic memory
Memory for general facts and concepts, contains information with meaning that ultimately allows people to engage in complex cognitive processes such as recognizing objects and using language.
- Meanings of words, concepts, rules of language
Recall vs Recognition
- Independently reproducing information previously exposed to
- Realising certain stimulus is one that you have seen/heard before (what they test in MCQs)
Clustering
The tendency for items to be consistently grouped together in the course of recall, typically occurring for related items.
Types of long term memory
Procedural memory [remembering how things are done] [cerebellum]
Declarative memory [aka fact memory] [hippocampus]
Level of processing theory (Lockhart)
Information goes through different levels of analysis - deeper the analysis, better the memory
- Structural processing - shallow and related to the structural properties of the words
- Intermediate processing - related to phonological sounds of the word
- Meaning of input is given
Elaborative rehearsal
An encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by integrating new information to already existing memories.
TOT phenomenon
Attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word but not being able to do so.
Usually retrieve words that 1. sound like target word 2. start with the same letter 3. have similar no. of syllables 4. holds the same meaning
Episodic memory
Ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place.
Part of LTM.
No logical organization.
Have biological reference.
Role of organization in encoding LTM
- Info to be grouped in logical manner [inherent or individualistic]
- Words arranged in logical hierarchy recalled better
- Subjective organization
Subjective organization
The creation of one’s own idiosyncratic set of associations or groupings among items to be learned in order to facilitate memory.
Role of imagery in encoding LTM
- Images as partial or altered representations of world around
- Paired-associate technique experiment [concrete & abstract words]
- Having an item that evoked memory led to good recall
- Image creating words (concrete) became conceptual pegs on which response was hung
Role of constructive processes in encoding LTM
Process of modifying (simplifying, accentuating or changing) complex info to be encoded - it is different for literal copy of input.
- Remembering the gist of complex information
- Using inferences while encoding based on schemata
Schema
A collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving.
State-dependant memory
A condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed.
Retrieval cue
A prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall. Direct memory search to appropriate part in long term memory.
Confabulation
The falsification of memory in which gaps in recall are filled by fabrications that the individual accepts as fact. Typically not considered to be a conscious attempt to deceive others. Occurs in eye-witness testimonies.
Reconstructive memory
The process of remembering involving the recreation of an experience or event that has been only partially stored in memory. When a memory is retrieved, the process uses general knowledge and schemas for what typically happens in order to reconstruct the experience or event.
Forgetting
The failure to remember material previously learned.
Result of lack of attention, not reaching STM, inadequate encoding & rehearsal.
Serial position curve
Theorized by Ebbinghaus
The greater accuracy of recall of words or other information early and late in a list of information than of words or information in the middle of the list.
Processing in working memory by Baddeley & Hitch
- Phonological loop (incoming auditory information is stored here as mental representations; language)
- Episodic buffer (temporary storage area where information from LTM, VSK and PL are integrated, manipulated and made available for use)
- Visuospatial sketch (incoming visual and spatial information is stored here as mental representations)
- Central executive (directs overall functioning)
Context-dependent memory
Refers to the fact that information entered into memory in one context or setting is easier to recall in that context than in others.
Encoding specificity principle
Principle stating that retrieval of information is successful to the extent that the retrieval cues match the cues the learner used during the study phase.
Retroactive interference
Interference that occurs when new learning or exposure to new information impairs the ability to remember material or carry out activities previously learned, especially if the two sets of material are similar.
Proactive interference
Interference in new learning due to previous learning of similar or related material.
Repression
Basic defense mechanism that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness. Operates on an unconscious level as a protection against anxiety produced by objectionable sexual wishes, feelings of hostility, and ego-threatening experiences, etc.
Amnesia
Partial or complete loss of memory, either temporary or permanent, may be due to physiological factors such as injury or disease, to substance use, or to psychological factors such as a traumatic experience
Retrograde amnesia
A disturbance in memory marked by inability to recall previously learned information or past events
Anterograde amnesia
A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information
Theories for childhood amnesia
- Freud [repressed feelings of guilt, aggression and sexual feelings]
- Language formation interfering with memories formed as images in childhood
- Maturation of brain to encode memories
- Lack of self-concept for form autobiographical memory
Reasons for dream amnesia
- Freud [repressing forbidden sexual & aggressive urges]
- State-dependent memory
- Memory symbol networks different from reality
Transient global amnesia
A sudden global amnesia—a form of transient amnestic disorder—that typically resolves within 24 hours and occurs in the absence of any other neurological abnormalities. No new memories formed during attack. Anterograde & retrograde amnesia seen.
- Maybe due to temporary alterations in blood flow to brain
Korsakoff’s syndrome
- A syndrome occurring primarily in cases of severe, chronic alcoholism.
- Caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and damage to the mammillary bodies.
- Demonstrate dense anterograde and retrograde amnesia, which is thought to be due to lesions in the anterior or dorsomedial nuclei (or both) of the thalamus.
- Other symptoms: confabulation, lack of insight, apathy, and impoverished conversation
Senile dementia
Generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes (after age of 65). Interferes with individual’s daily functioning and social and occupational activity.
Causes for senile dementia
Reduction of blood flow to brain
- Brain arteriosclerosis - narrowing of arteries to the brain due to fatty deposit. Inadequate oxygen & nutrients. Brain atrophies.
Alzheimer’s disease
Form of primary degenerative dementia, a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cortical atrophy, neuronal death, synapse loss, causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning.
Onset around age 60
Early onset shows from age 30
Mnemonics
Specific memory improvement techniques
- Method of loci
- Number & letter peg system
- Stories
- Chunking
Source monitoring
The process of identifying the origins of specific memories.
Reality monitoring
The process of deciding whether specific memories are based on external (real) sources or on internal sources (e.g., imagination, thoughts).
Suggestibility
An inclination to readily and uncritically adopt the ideas, beliefs, attitudes, or actions of others.
Eyewitnesses getting influence by leading questions.
Illusion of out-group homogeneity
Tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other, particularly in contrast to the assumed diversity of the membership of one’s own group.
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event.
Mood congruent effect
Our tendency to notice or remember information congruent with our current mood.
Paivio’s dual code hypothesis
Information can be stored (or encoded) in two ways: visually and verbally.
Abstract information tends to be encoded verbally, whereas concrete information tends to be encoded visually (i.e., as an image) and verbally.
Zeigarnik effect
Refers to the tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks.
Ebbinghaus’ experiment
Used nonsensical syllables to study memory
Method of savings - Checked how many times he had to repeat reading the list of ‘words’ before complete recollection [more complex the material, more repetitions needed]
Forgetting curve - Depicts that without practice we would forget rapidly until a point where forgetting happens at a slower rate
Generation-recognition model
To explain why we can recognise more easily than recall, the model suggests that recall involves the same mental process involved in recognition plus another process of generating info not required for recognition
Two types of declarative memory
Semantic [GK, meaning of words] & Episodic memory [events]
Spreading activation model
By Collins & Loftus
Semantic networks are knowledge bases that describes concepts and their relations. Nodes represent the concept and lines represent the relation.
Spreading activation is how things are retrieved from a semantic network.
Eg: By giving a list of desserts, sometimes people would recall related dessert words not on the OG list, because recollection spread to similar nodes.
Response latency
Measure of time between the stimulus and the time response begins
Semantic-feature comparison model
Smith, Shoben & Rips
Semantic memory contains feature lists of concepts and the key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts
Two sensory registers in the sensory memory
Iconic storage - visual sensory register; holds incoming visual information; Sperling
Echoic storage -auditory sensory register; holds incoming sounds for a brief amount of time
Masking
Because sensory information is very rapid, new incoming information quickly covers up old information
Mood congruent recall
Remembering things in line with one’s present mood; by Fielder
Prospective memory
Having to remember to do something in the future such as pick up keys or go for a dinner at night
Implicit memory
Type of memory that influences our behavior without our conscious awareness
