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BIO107 - CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY > Module 1A- Cell and Genomes > Flashcards

Module 1A- Cell and Genomes Flashcards

1
Q

The study of the structure, function, and behavior of cells

A

Cell biolgy

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2
Q

What do the cell biology study?

A

Structure, function, and behavior of cells

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3
Q

ā€œthe key to every biological problem must finally be
sought in the cell; for every living organism is, or at some
time has been, a cellā€

A

E.B. Wilson

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4
Q

Despite their apparent diversity, living things are fundamentally ___inside

A

similar

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5
Q

distinguishes life from other processes, in which orderly structures are generated but without the same type of link between the peculiarities of parents and the peculiarities of offspring

A

heredity

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6
Q

All Cells Store Their Hereditary Information in the Same Linear Chemical Code: ____

A

DNA

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7
Q

where do all living cells on Earth store their hereditary information

A

in the form
of double-stranded
molecules of DNA

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8
Q
  • long, unbranched, paired polymer chains
  • formed always of the same 4 types of monomers
A

DNA

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9
Q

what is DNA formed of?

A

4 types of monomers

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10
Q

nucleotide, consist of two parts: a sugar (deoxyribose) with a phosphate group attached to it, and a base

A

monomer

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11
Q

what are the four bases?

A

adenine (A)
guanine (G)
cytosine (C)
thymine (T)

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12
Q

where do cells transcribe portions of their hereditary information

A

into the same intermediary form (RNA)

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13
Q

2 key classes of polymers

A

RNA and proteins

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14
Q

DNA to RNA

A

Transcription

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15
Q

RNA to proteins

A

Translation

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16
Q

In RNA, what is use instead of thymine

A

uracil

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17
Q

mass-produced and disposable

A

RNA transcripts

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18
Q
  • guide the synthesis of proteins according to the genetics instructions stored in the DNA.
  • intermediates in the transfer of genetic information
A

mRNA

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19
Q

have distinctive structures that can also give them specialized chemical caopabilities

A

RNA molecules

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20
Q

may enable RNA to recognize other molecules by binding to them selectively

A

Shape of RNA molecules

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21
Q
  • carry information in the form of a linear sequence of symbols
  • a polypeptide
A

protein

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22
Q

monomer of proteins

A

amino acids

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23
Q

how is a polypeptide created

A

by joining its amino acids in a
particular sequence

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24
Q

each protein molecule performing a specific function according to its own genetically specified sequence of ____ ___

A

amino acids

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25
Q

What does protein catalyze

A

many chemical reactions

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26
Q

cell-replicating collection of catalysts

A

A living cell

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27
Q

a segment of DNA sequence corresponding to a single protein or set of alternative protein variants or to a single catalytic regulatory, or structural RNA molecule

A

Gene

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28
Q

the expression of individual genes is
regulated

A

regulatory DNA

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29
Q

When the expression of individual genes is regulated, where is it interspersed?

A

interspersed among the segments that code for protein

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30
Q

What do all cells use as catalyst

A

Proteins

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31
Q

Each protein is encoded by a ?

A

Specific gene

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32
Q

each cell is enclosed by a _____ ___

A

plasma membrane

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33
Q

consisting of a hydrophobic (water-insoluble) and a hydrophilic (water-soluble) parts, creating a bilayer

A

Amphiphilic

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34
Q

largely determine which molecules enter the
cell

A

Membrane transport proteins

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35
Q

A living cell can exist with fewer than ___
genes

A

500 genes

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36
Q

What are the minimum
requirements in Mycoplasma genitalium

A

530
genes, about 400 of which are essential

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37
Q

Has 530
genes, about 400 of which
are essential

A

Mycoplasma genitalium

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38
Q

What is the minimum number of genes far a viable cell

A

Not less than 300

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39
Q

DNA sequence of any given organism can be readily
obtained by?

A

biochemical techniques

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40
Q

it is now possible to _________, _____, and ____ any set of living organisms with reference to these sequences.

A

characterize, catalog, and compare

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41
Q

Cells can be powered by what?

A

Variety of Free-Energy Sources

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42
Q

feeding
on other living things or the organic chemicals they produce

A

organotrophic

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43
Q

feeding
on sunlight

A

Phototrophic

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44
Q

feeding on rock

A

lithotrophic

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45
Q

produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

A

Autotrophic

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46
Q

eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients.

A

Heterotrophic

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47
Q

Different ways of living organisms to obtain their free energy

A

Organotrophic
Phototrophic
Lithotrophic
Heterotrophic
Autotrophic

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48
Q

Some Cells Fix ____ and ____
____ for Others

A

Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide

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49
Q

DNA, RNA, and protein are composed of six elements:

A

hydrogen
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
sulfur and
phosphorus

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50
Q

living cells differ widely in some of the most basic aspects of their ___

A

biochemistry

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51
Q

live mostly as independent individuals or in loosely organized communities, rather than as multicellular
organisms

A

Prokaryotes

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52
Q

live in an enormous variety of ecological niches, and they are astonishingly varied in their biochemical capabilitiesā€”far more so than eukaryotic cells.

A

Prokaryotic cells

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53
Q

Three primary branches of the tree of life

A

Bacteria
Archaea and
Eukaryotes

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54
Q

readily interpret such close family resemblances in terms of evolution from common ancestors

A

Tree of life

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55
Q

prokaryotes comprise two distinct
groups:

A

Bacteria and Archaea

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56
Q

recently revealed that the first eukaryotic cell formed after a particular type of ancient archaeal cell engulfed an ancient bacterium

A

detailed genome analyses

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57
Q

What did the detailed genome analyses have recently revealed about the formation of first eukaryotic cell

A

the first eukaryotic cell formed after a particular type of ancient archaeal cell engulfed an ancient bacterium

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58
Q

The Tree of Life Has Three Primary Branches: Bacteria

A
  1. Cyanobacteria
  2. Bacillus
  3. E. Coli
  4. Thermotoga
  5. Aquifex
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59
Q

The Tree of Life Has Three Primary Branches: Archaea

A
  1. Aeropyrum
  2. Sulfolobus
  3. Haloferax
  4. Methano-thermobacter
  5. Methanococcus
60
Q

The Tree of Life Has Three Primary Branches: Eukaryotes

A
  1. Human
  2. Maize
  3. Yeast
  4. Paramecium
  5. Dictyostelium
  6. Euglena
  7. Trypanosoma
  8. Giardia
  9. Trichomonas
61
Q

may represent a change for the better or cause serious damage

A

alterations of nucleotide sequence

62
Q

evolution of organisms

A

mutations and natural selection

63
Q

How do genetic specifications changes impact an organismā€™s ability to survive and reproduce

A
  • giving new ways to exploit the environment more effectively
  • to survive in competition with others, and to reproduce successfully
64
Q

What do rapid evolution of certain genes lead to

A
  • new ways to exploit the environment more effectively, resulting for them to survive in competition with others, and to reproduce successfully
65
Q

Why some genes are highly conserved across species

A

They perform essential functions that are critical for survival, so changes in these genes are often detrimental

66
Q

Most Bacteria and Archaea Have ____ā€“____ Genes

A

1000ā€“6000 genes

67
Q
  • can
    reproduce the fastest
  • most can carry very little superfluous
    baggage
  • their genomes are small, with genes packed closely
    together and minimal quantities of regulatory DNA
    between them
A

Prokaryotic cells

68
Q

What do most prokaryotic cells carry

A

very little superfluous baggage

69
Q

New Genes Are Generated
from?

A

Preexisting Genes

70
Q

Four modes of genetic innovation

A
  1. Intragenic mutation
  2. Gene duplication
  3. DNA segment shuffling
  4. Horizontal transfer
71
Q

Existing genes can be randomly modified by changes in itā€™s DNA sequence

A

Intragenic mutation

72
Q

Existing genes can be accidentally duplicated as to create a pair of initially identical genes within a single cell

A

Gene duplication

73
Q

2 or more existing genes can break and rejoin to make a hybrid gene consisting of DNA segments that originally belong to separate genomes

A

DNA segment shuffling

74
Q

A piece of DNA can be transferred from the genome of one cell to that of another

A

Horizontal transfer

75
Q

the transfer of genetic material is from parents to offspring

A

Vertical gene transfer

76
Q

genes that are related by descent

77
Q

related genes that resulted from a gene duplication event

78
Q

occur much more frequently between different species of prokaryotes

A

horizontal gene transfers

79
Q

have a remarkable capacity to take up even nonviral DNA molecules from surroundings, and thereby capture the genetic information

A

bacteriophages

80
Q

Sex Results in ____ Exchanges of Genetic Information
Within a Species

A

Horizontal

81
Q

causes a large-scale horizontal transfer of genetic information between two initially separate cell lineagesā€”
those of the father and the mother

A

sexual reproduction

82
Q

determines gene function

A

gene sequence

83
Q

What are the two complementary approaches where analysis of gene functions depends on

A

genetics and biochemistry.

84
Q

study of mutant

85
Q

function of molecules

A

biochemistry

86
Q

Molecular Biology Began with a Spotlight on ____

87
Q
  • small, rod-
    shaped bacteria
    ā€¢ grown easily on simple nutrient broth
    ā€¢ adapts to variable chemical conditions and reproduces
    rapidly
    ā€¢ evolve by mutation and selection at a remarkable
    speed
A

Escherichia coli

88
Q

bigger and more elaborate than prokaryotic cells, and their genomes are bigger and more elaborate, too.

A

Eukaryotic cells

89
Q

the way of life of a ___ cell that was a
predator, living by capturing other cells and
eating them

A

primordial

90
Q

eukaryotic cells are 10 times bigger in __ dimension and 1000 times larger in __

A

linear
volume

91
Q

helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization, and it also provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and movement.

A

Cytoskeleton

92
Q

It is now generally accepted that mitochondria originated from ____-_____ _____-______ bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral cell that could otherwise make no such use of oxygen (that is, was anaerobic).

A

free-living oxygen-metabolizing (aerobic)

93
Q

first eukaryotic cells formed after an archaeal cell engulfed an ___ bacterium

94
Q

have their own genome; originated as symbiotic photosynthetic bacteria

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts

95
Q

provides energy to eukaryotic cells

A

chloroplast

96
Q

plant cells lost the ability to do _____ having a tough, protective cell wall

A

phagocytosis

97
Q

possesses mitochondria and have a tough outer wall

98
Q

the genomes of most ___ have become orders of magnitude larger than those of bacteria and archaea

A

Eukaryotes

99
Q

___% of human genome do not code for proteins

100
Q

__% in E.coli do not code for protein

101
Q

regulate the expression of adjacent genes

A

regulatory DNA

102
Q

act by binding, directly or indirectly, to the regulatory DNA adjacent to the genes that are to be controlled, or by interfering with the abilities of other proteins to do so

A

transcription regulators

103
Q

Example of Solitary eukaryotic Cells

A

ā€¢ protozoa (hunters)
ā€¢ unicellular algae (photosynthesizer)
ā€¢ unicellular fungi or yeast (scavengers)

104
Q

ā€¢ small, single-celled; closely related to animals as it is to
plants
ā€¢ robust and easy to grow in a simple nutrient medium
ā€¢ reproduce vegetatively (budding)

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)

105
Q

Has Been Chosen Out of 300,000 Species As a Model Plant

A

Arabidopsis

106
Q

ā€¢ can be grown indoors
ā€¢ produces thousands of offspring per plant after 8-10weeks
ā€¢ genome size of approx. 220 million nucleotide pairs

A

Thale cress (Arabidopsis
thaliana)

107
Q

The World of Animal Cells Is Represented By

A

Worm, Fly, Fish, Mouse, and Human

108
Q

model organisms for molecular genetic studies

A

ā€¢ nematode worm Caenorhabditis
elegans
ā€¢ the fly Drosophila melanogaster
ā€¢ the zebrafish Danio rerio
ā€¢ the mouse Mus musculus
ā€¢ the human, Homo sapiens

109
Q

ā€¢ model genetic organism
ā€¢ definitive proof that genes are
carried on chromosomes
ā€¢ how to trace the chain of
cause and effect from the
genetic instructions encoded
in the chromosomal DNA to
the structure of the adult
multicellular body

A

fruit fly Drosophila
melanogaster

110
Q

almost every gene in the vertebrate genome has

111
Q

do occur from time to time in evolution

A

whole-genome duplications

112
Q

Provide a Key to Vertebrate Development

A

Studies in Drosophila

113
Q

a Product of Repeated Duplications

A

Vertebrate Genome

114
Q

with ordinary diploid genome

A

X. tropicalis

115
Q

duplicated genome

116
Q

Provide Accessible Models for
Vertebrate Development

A

Frog and the Zebrafish

117
Q

-embryonic development
ā€¢ eggs are big, easy to manipulate, fertilized outside
the animal

118
Q

compact genome, generation time of 3 months, many mutants are known, and genetic engineering is relatively
easy

119
Q

ā€¢ are highly uniform group of organisms
ā€¢ species resemble one another genetically

A

Mammals (mammalian species)

120
Q

human and elephant = __% of amino acids are identical

121
Q

human and bird = ___% similarity

122
Q

the
Predominant
Mammalian Model
Organism

123
Q
  • foremost model organism for experimental studies of
    vertebrate molecular genetics
  • many naturally occurring mutations are known, often
    mimicking the effects of corresponding mutations in
    humans
124
Q

Humans Report on Their Own ___

A

Peculiarities

125
Q

Humans catalog their own ___ _____

A

genetic disorders

126
Q

Human inheritance and genetic disorders

A

Polydactyly
Hypertrichosis
Progeria
Hemophelia
Down syndrome
Sickle cell anemia

127
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as?

A

symbiotic photosynthetic
bacteria

128
Q

ā€¢ 4300 approx. number of genes
ā€¢ 4.6 x10ā¶ genome size (nucleotide pairs)

A

Escherichia coli (bacterium)

129
Q

ā€¢ 4300 approx. number of genes
ā€¢ 4.6 x10ā¶ genome size (nucleotide pairs)

A

Escherichia coli (bacterium)

130
Q
  • 6600 approx. number of genes
  • 13 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae(yeast)

131
Q
  • 21,000 approx number of genes
  • 130 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Caenorhabditis elegans (roundworm)

132
Q
  • 29,000 approx number of genes
  • 220 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Arabidopsis thaliana (plant)

133
Q
  • 15,000 approx. number of genes
  • 200 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)

134
Q
  • 32,000 approx. number of genes
  • 1400 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Danio rerio (zebrafish)

135
Q
  • 30,000 approx number of genes
  • 2800 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Mus musculus (mouse)

136
Q
  • 30,000 approx. number of genes
  • 3200 x 10ā¶ genome size
A

Homo sapiens

137
Q

Includes an estimate for the amount of highly repeated DNA sequence, not in genome databases

A

Genome size

138
Q

Collaborate to reproduce the entire collection before a cell divides

A

Cellā€™s collection of catalyst

139
Q
  • shows the evolutionary relationships among diff. organisms
  • like a family tree
A

Phylogenetic tree

140
Q

Show where genetic or physical similarities and difference between organisms begin or end

141
Q

Represents a distant ancestor of the species that appear at the ends of the branches

142
Q
  • where branches separate
  • points where ancestral lines split into new lines of evolution
143
Q

example of spherical cells

A

streptococcus

144
Q

Example of rod-shaped cells

A

Escherichia coli and vibrio cholerae

145
Q

the smallest cells

A

Mycoplasma spiroplasma

146
Q

Example of spiral cells

A

Treponema pallidum

BIO107 - CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (16 decks)

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