MOD2 - Cognitive Foundations of BHD Flashcards
what is learning based on and what does it result in
based on experience and results in a relatively consistent change in behaviour or behaviour potential
what is classical conditioning
relationships between events in our environment
what is the process of classical conditioning
learning new stimuli associations between 2 previously unrelated stimuli
UCS naturally elicits a reflexive response and previously neutral stimulus did not elicit response.
we learn prev neutral stim predicts a certain event and we respond accordingly
after repeated pairings with the UCS the neutral stimulus elicits the response on its own
what is a reflex
unlearned response elicited by stimuli that have a biological relevance for an organism
what is an unconditioned stimulus/UCS
any stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response
what is an unconditoned response/UCR
the response naturally elicited by the UCS
what is the conditioned stimulus/CS
previously neutral stimulus that is able to elicit a particular response after being paired with the UCS
what is the conditioned response/CR
response elicited by the CS
what is acquisition
process by which the CR is first elicited
what are the 2 requirements that are critical for classical conditioning
timing so pairings are close enough in time to be perceived as being related
UCS and CS need to be paired several time
what is stimulus generalisation in classical conditioning
CR occurs to other stimuli that are similar to the CS but have never been paired with the UCS
what is stimulus discrimination in classical conditoning
distinguishes among stimuli similar to CS
what is extinction in classical conditioning
CR disappears when the CS repeatedly occurs without the UCS
what is operant conditioning
process by which a behaviour is associated with its consequences
what is thorndike’s law of effect
actions that subsequently lead to satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated
what is a reinforcement and what type of conditioning is it associated with
operant conditioning
stimulus that occurs after the behaviour and increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur in the future
what is a punishment and what type of conditioning is it associated with
operant conditioning
stimulus that occurs after the behaviour and decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur in the future
what is positive reinforcement
presentation of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour
what is negative reinforcement
removal of unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour
what is positive punishment
presentation of unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour
what is negative punishment
removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour
what type(s) of conditioning is extinction of a behaviour associated with
both operant and classical
what is extinction of a behaviour
fading of a behaviour after initial burst when reinforcement of the behaviour stops
spontaneous recovery could occur
what are primary reinforcers
naturally reinforcing biologically determined
what are secondary reinforcers
learned reinforcers and do not inherently satisfy a physical need
what are the 2 schedules of reinforcements
continuous and intermittent
what is continuous reinforcement schedules
reinforcer occurs after every response
eg after each time the behaviour is performed
what is intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules
reinforcer occurs intermittently rather than after every response
what are the 2 subtypes of intermittent reinforcement schedules
ratio and interval schedules
what are the 2 types of ratio schedules
fixed ratio and variable ratio
what is fixed ratio schedules
reinforcer occurs after a fixed number of behavioral responses
what is a variable ratio schedule
reinforcer occurs after a variable number of behavioural responses whose average is pre-determined
what are the 2 types of interval schedules
fixed and variable
what is a fixed interval schedule
reinforcer occurs for the first behavioural response made after a fixed period of time
what is a variable interval schedule
reinforcer occurs for the first behavioural response made after a variable period of time whose average is predetermined
what is observational learning
your response is influenced by the observation of others (models)
what are the 4 factors in observational learning
motivation
attention
retention
reproduction
what is vicarious conditioning
imitation of anothers behaviour depends on the characteristics of the model such as prestige, likeability/attractiveness and if they were observed to be rewarded or punished for behaviour
what is learned helplessness
an expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events
what are the 3 steps to learned helplessness
uncontrollable bad events
perceived lack of control
generalised helpless behaviour
what are the 3 types of deficits that learned helplessness is marked by
motivational
emotional cognitive
what is the motivational deficit in learned helplessness
slow to intiate known actions
what is the emotional deficit in learned helplessness
can appear rigid, lifeless, frightened or distressed
what is the cognitive deficit in learned helplessness
demonstrate poor learning in new situation
what is learned helplessness in a health context
people in situations where they have little control (eg poverty, homelessness, disabilites) give up trying to influence their environment
learned they are helpless so may have poor health and mental health consequences
the mental processes involved in acquiring, representing and processing knowledge are characterised by what 2 points
individual differences in perception
subjective interpretations of environment and relationships
what are contingencies
outcomes are dependent on our actions
what is the internal locus
belief that own actions determine our fates
what is the external locus
belief that our lives are governed by forces outside our control or by people more powerful than ourselves
what is the locus of control
expectancy as to whether or not fate determines outcomes in life
what is the behaviour of those with an internal locus in terms of health context
those with internal locus of control are more likely to practice good health care habits
what is the behaviour of those with an external locus in terms of health context
those with external locus of control are more likely to believe that health is outside their control so take fewer actions to improve their health and can end up in poorer shape
what is self-efficacy
belief that one an perform adequately in a particular situation
related to competence in a specific situation and activity
is the thought “I can do that behaviour if i want to, try try try again” high or low self efficacy
high
is the thought “no way i can’t do that/ i cant do it/ i quit” high or low self efficacy
low
what are the 4 factors that impact self-efficacy
mastery experience
vicarious experience
persuasion
emotional arousal
what is mastery experience in self efficacy
able to master behaviours easily so more likely to try new experiences
what is vicarious experience in self efficacy
if other people can do it i can too
what is persuasion in self efficacy
other people support you or you support yourself
what is emotional arousal in self efficacy
nerves
what is self-efficacy’s role in health context
when people feel they have self-efficacy over health conditions or treatments the effects of their health condition becomes less of a stressor
what is attribution theory
how people interpret and explain causal relationships in the social world
what is an explanatory attribution style
individuals explanatory style can determine how they cope and behave following uncontrollable adverse events
what is are the 2 types of explanatory attribution style
optimistic and pessimistic
what is optimistic explanatory style - what do they credit their success and failures to
healthy and credits success to internal factors
failures to external factors so confidently works for sucess
what is pessimistic explanatory style - what do they credit their success and failures to
unhealthy as they credit success to luck and failure to lack of ability
therefore low expectation of success
what are the 2 main errors of attribution
fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias
what is fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute another person’s behaviour to personality/disposition while ignoring situational causes
even when there are strong situational cues we tend to underestimate them
what are the 4 reasons that we make FAE
not enough info about situational factors
pay more attention to people than objects
we would have acted differently in their place
cultural influences
what is self serving bias
tendency to attribute personal success to internal factors and personal failures to external factors
what are the 2 reasons that we have self serving bias
saving face in front of other people
preserves self esteem in short term
what are the 3 theories of chronic pain
gate control
operant conditioning
cognitive behavioral
what is sensation
process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor gives rise to neural impulses that result in an experience/awareness of conditions inside or outside the body
what is perception
process of organising info in the sensory image and interpret it as having been produced by properties of object or events in the external 3D world
what is pain
body’s response to harmful stimuli that are intense enough to cause/threaten tissue damage
what are the 3 factors of pain
type of sensation
frequency
intensity
what are the 3 components of pain
experience (sensation/perception)
response (reaction/behaviour)
management
pain perception and experience is strongly influenced by what 3 factors
attention
cognition
mood
what is chronic pain
pain that lasts longer than 3 months
impacts an individual’s wellbeing and difficult to diagnose and treat/manage
what is the gate control theory
gate exists at the spinal cord that ca block some pain signals while allowing others through the brain
what is the 2way input to the gate control theory
ascending and descending
what is the ascending messages of the gate control theory
messages are biological in nature
what is the descending messages of the gate control theory
messages are psychological in nature
non painful input has what effect on the gate in the gate control theory
closes the gate to the painful inputs and prevents pain sensation from travelling to the CNS
thus non-noxious physical and psychological input can suppress pain
what is the operant conditioning theory of chronic pain
learned associations between pain behaviour and its consequences
what is withdrawal in the operant conditioning theory of chronic pain
response to painful stimuli to escape noxious stimuli by moving away or removing pain
what does withdrawal from noxious stimuli exemplify in terms of reinforcement
negative reinforcement
what are the treatment approaches in the operant conditioning theory of chronic pain
focus on changing behaviour and use conditioning to decrease unhelpful behaviours or increase helpful behaviours
interventions in the operant conditioning theory of chronic pain seek to
identify and modify antecedents of experiences/behaviours
reinforce/punish behaviours by changing consequences
what are the 3 components of the cognitive triangle
thoughts/psychological
feelings/emotions
behaviour/reaction
what is the cognitive behavioral theory
individuals seen as active processors of info = a persons perceptions impact their behaviour
what are the 2 types of coping in the cognitive behavioral theory
active and passive coping
what is active coping
focus on trying to control pain/function despite it
individuals use own resources to deal with pain
leads to problem solving attitude and positive effect on pain
what is passive coping
focus on avoiding the experience of pain
individual feels helpless in dealing with their pain
leads to inactivity or over reaction and negative effect on pain
operant conditioning model of chronic
pain relates to ___ aspects
cognitive behavioral model of chronic pain relates to ___ aspects
operant = behavioural
cognitive = cognitive
what is cognitive development
gradual transition from infant to adult mental capacity
before piaget what was assumed about childrens cognition
assumed that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults
what is piagets scheme
mental structure made up of organised group of memories thoughts and strategies
schemes are units of knowledge of related content
what is assimilation and accomodation
assimilation = reality is assimilated into ones worldview
accomodation = changing ones worldview to better reflect reality
what occurs in the sensorimotor stage
sensorimotor intelligence so become more coordinated and move from reflexive to voluntary action
reflexive schemes substage 0-1mnth where newborns suck/grasp/look in the same way no matter the circumstances
what are the 4 piagets stage and what ages do they occur at
sensorimotor = birth-2yr
preoperational = 2-7yr
concrete operational = 7-11yr
formal operational = 12yrs +
what are the 2 main attainments of the sensorimotor stage
describe this stage
object permanence and ability to imitate
no though beyond immediate physical experience (5 senses)
what is object permanence
understanding that an object continues to exist even if it cant be seen or heard
what are the 2 markers of peroperational stage
what develops in this stage
thoughts and communication egocentrism (focused on own experiences) and symbolic thought (clear mental representation of objects and events not physically present)
moving from imitation to more sophisticated symbolic or make believe play
language development
what occurs to thought in the concrete operational stage
what is the main process that is mastered
thinking becomes more logical, practical and organised
conservation is mastered (objects physical properties dont change when nothings added/taken away)
what are the 2 concepts found in new research on concrete operational thought
skills dont emerge spontaneously
previous experience influences understanding
does everyone reach the formal operational stage
may not exist for some
what occurs in the formal operational stage
abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges
what are the 3 levels to understanding illness and piaget and what ages do they occur at
prelogical explanations = 2-6yr
concrete logical explanations = 6-12yr
formal logical explanations = 12+
what are the 2 categories of the prelogical stages
phenomenism = ‘magical’ terms (dont understand cause and effect)
contagion = illness is from person/object thats close by or activity occured before illness
what are the 2 categories of the concrete logical explanation stages
contamination = multiple symptoms possible and germs/behaviour cause illness
internalisation = illness is within the body, differentiate organs and diff treatments improve health
what are the 2 categories of the formal logical explanation stages
physiologic explanations = illness defined in terms of bodily malfunction
psychophysiological explanations = mind and body interact and accept role of stress/worry (most mature understanding of illness)
what was vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
children are product of culture and are influenced by social interaction
what is social constructivism
learning is active creation of knowledge from personal experience
vygotsky believed that learning was continuous/in stages
continuous
what were the 2 key concepts in vygotsky’s theory
social constructivism and language play central role in development
(children talk to themselves when problem solving - private speech)
what is the zone of proximal development in vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
difference between a childs independent performance and assisted/guided performance
what is scaffolding in vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
teacher/parent adjusts amount and type of support to the childs level of development
what are the 4 things that must be done to prepare children and adolescents for medical issues or going to the doctors/surgery
establish cognitive level of child
determine illness experience
establish experience of a specific treatment
check understanding of explanations after giving them
how can children be prepared for surgery
tours of theater videos interactive materials address anxiety relieve guilt educate parents after surgery parent stay
what is the definition of chronic illness
interferes with daily functioning for >3mnths/yr
hospitalisation lasting >1month/yr
affects child for life/rare cure/life-time management
the impact of chronic illness depends on what 5 factors
type of diagnosis and degree of physical impairment
visibility of illness
uncertainty about prognosis
irregular and unpredictable effects of illness
treatment and pain associated with disease and treatment
what might nonadherence look like
discontinuation of treatment
increasing/decreasing dose without consulting physician
what are potential causes of non-adherence
complex treatment side effects poor doctor/patient communication ae patient beliefs about illness/medicaiton
what are the 4 multimodal interventions to supporting families and young people in the healthcare setting
educational approaches
modelling
incentives (reinforcements)
family support and problem solving
what are the 2 types of memory
short and long term memory
what are the 2 types of short term memory
and how long do they last for
sensory (>1sec) and working (>1min)
what are the 2 types of long term memory
what are they in terms of conciousness
explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconcious)
what are the 3 processes of memory
give a brief description for each
encoding = convert info into usable form in memory
storage = retaining info in memory
retrieval = bringing to mind info stored in memory
what is encoding in memory
transform external events and internal thoughts into both temporary and long lasting memories
when you’ve encoded info it goes into what type of memory
short term memory
what is maintenance rehearsal
repeating info to get into your short term memory
what are the 3 steps in encoding long term memories
perception of stimuli -> encoding
engram -> consolidation
long term potentiation -> storage
what is perception of stimuli when encoding long term memories
anatomical change via neurotransmitter release
what is creating an engram when encoding long term memories
physical memory trace in brain
what is long term potentiation when encoding long term memories
gradual strengthening of connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
what are the 3 depths to encoding memories
list from shallow to deep and what they mean
shallow = structural (letters/physical)
phonemic (sounds like)
deep = semantic (attach meaning to it)
what are the 3 types of sensory memory
describe them in terms of capacity, duration and which sense they primarily are associated with
iconic = 0.5sec long, visual, large capacity
echoic = 3-4sec long, hearing, short duration
haptic = less than 1 sec long, touch
what are the 3 measurements of working memory
capacity
chunk
duration
what are the 3 techniques to turning working memory and its immediate experiences/sensory input to long term memory
auditory rehearsal
visual spatial sketchpad
central executive
what is auditory rehearsal
repeating info to yourself
what is central executive
directs focus
eg study break, get dinner
what is storage capacity and duration for long term memory
what kinds of things are stored
potentially long duration/lifetime huge capacity mutistore system - past experiences/events - thoughts and feelings - skills and abilities - identity and sense of self
what are the 2 types of explicit long term memory
semantic and episodic
what are the 4 types of implicit memory
procedural
priming
conditioning
habituation
what is explicit memory
memories for facts, events and beliefs about the world that we’re consciously aware of
we recall it intentionally
what is episodic memory
recollection of events and experiences in our lives
what is somatic memory
knowledge of facts about the world
what is implicit memory
knowing ‘how’
experiential or functional form of memory
dont deliberately remember and cannot be consciously recalled or reflected on
what is procedural memory
how to do things
motor skills, habits
what is priming in terms of memory
identify stimulus easier after prior exposure
what is conditioning and habituation in terms of memory
forms of unconscious learning
how does long term memory happen in terms of anatomical change
memory trace may reflect alterations in neurotransmitter release at specific sites
what is important about patient HM
no new LTM but working memory and procedural memory mostly intact
what part type of memory is the striatum responsible for
habit formation
what part type of memory is the cerebellum responsible for
procedural memory
what part type of memory is the hippocampus responsible for
semantic memory and consolidation of memories
what part type of memory is the amygdala responsible for
memories about emotions
what are the 3 ways to access memories in the retrieval part of memory
recall
recognition
reconstruction
what is recall in terms of info and stimuli
generate a mental representation of info/stimuli now absent
what is recognition in terms of info and stimuli
notice that info/stimuli is like the one experienced before
what is reconstruction in terms of info and stimuli
piece together memory based on info/stimuli that can be recalled
which is stronger recall or recognition
recognition
what are the 4 factors affecting LTM retrieval
stress and memory
flashbulb memories
serial position of info
the context
how does stress and memory affect LTM retrieval
how is this relevant in clinical context
level of attention/arousal related to memory performance
stress and memory relationship isnt linear
directly relevant to info given in stressful clinical context
how does flashbulb memories affect LTM retrieval
strong vivid (usually visual) and detailed memories of dramatic events
learning about events after they happened
emotionally charged
belief that resistant to decay
how does serial position affect LTM retrieval
what are the 2 types of effects and how is this clinically relevant
relates to position of info when given lots of info at once
primacy effect = first items recalled better (LTM)
recency effect = last items recalled better (working memory)
clinical context = important info first, repeat last
how does context affect LTM retrieval
external and internal context state can affect retrieval (environment and state)
encoding specificity = context embedded in info
the more overlap between conditions at encoding and retrieval the better the retrieval
use environmental cues to aid episodic memory retrieval
what are 5 reasons for forgetting
failure to encode
decay
interference
retrieval failure
motivated forgetting
the rate of forgetting is steepest for ___ ___ ___ ___
most recent material learnt
what is failure to encode in terms of forgetting
what are 4 reasons this happens
fail to effectively put material into LTM
not enough attention
lack of rehearsal
no elaboration of info
too much stress
what is decay in terms of forgetting
memory fades over time
points to impermanence of memory/storage
relates to how frequently recalled/rehearsed
what is interference in terms of forgetting
when is interference greatest
confusion or entanglement of similar memories
greatest when competing info most similar
what is retrieval failure in terms of forgetting
why does this occur
inability to find the necessary retrieval cue
cant recall previously remembered info
due to mismatch between retrieval and encoding context
what is motivated forgetting in terms of forgetting
why
forgot what we dont want to think about = repression
usually due to trauma
what are 4 mnemonic techniques
rhymes
acronyms
method of loci
keywords
what are 6 ways to prevent forgetting
pay attention
elaborative rehearsal
self referencing
state dependent learning
address serial position effects
mnemonic techniques
what is infantile amnesia
the lack of explicit memory for events before the age of 3years
what memories are present in infancy (0-1years)
what type of memory predominates
implicit memory predominates
recognition not recall
object permanence
what memories are present in toddlers (2-3 years)
what memory types are forming
implicit memory increases
semantic and episodic memory forming
able to recall names, objects and places
development of language
recognition better than recall
what did the mobile conjugate reinforcement task aim to do
what types of memory and conditioning did it use
what was the baseline, acquisition and retention
procedural and long term memory task relies on the operant conditioning programme
baseline = foot kicks not connected acquisition = connected kicks led to rapid increase in kicks (baby learns kicking moves the mobile) retention = recognition and quicker response after the delay
what 3 things is the significant improvement in memory during early childhood due to
advances in attention
advances in the speed and efficiency of info processing
advances in language development
in early childhood what type memory is better episodic or semantic
episodic
what are children between the ages of 3-6 better at remembering
better at remembering what they did than what they saw
in early childhood (3-6years) which memory type develops first
what kind of memory keeps improving
implicit memory develops first = can produced behavioural change without conscious awareness
explicit memory continues to improve = memories people know they have, facts, names and events
what is memory like in middle school (6-10years)
gradual increase in our understanding of memory
aware we forget things, can learn and use mnemonics
learn to use external aids
rehearsal, organization and elaboration
what is the misinformation effect
misleading info is incorporated into ones memory after an event
what are false memories
recollections that feel real but are not
what kind of interviewing leads to false memories and how can this be avoided
suggestive interviewing
avoided by using free recall prompts
what is crystallised intelligence
skills that depend on accumulated knowledge, experience
judgement and social skills
semantic and procedural memories
what is fluid intelligence
depends on info processing skills
speed of analysing info
working memory capacity
what happens to memory in adulthood (20s-60s)
in terms of brain volume, memory strategies, LTM, focus, combine info to pattern
brain volume peaks in 20s and declines gradually
info in working memory diminishes
use of memory strategies declines
more difficult extracting info from LTM
sustaining 2 complex tasks becomes more difficult
focus on relevant info becomes more difficult
ability to combine visual info into a pattern declines with age
what is the compensation for memory decline in adulthood
allow more time for processing
what happens to memory skills use daily in adulthood
decline less
what kind of memory and knowledge remains unchanged or increase
general, procedural and occupational knowledge
what happens to fluid intelligence over time
decreases
what are the age related declines in fluid intelligence
working memory
episodic memory
source of memory
what happens to crystalized intelligence over time
stability over time
what are the age related stability of crystalised intelligence over time
semantic memory
procedural memory
what is working memory and what does it encompass
planning
organising
flexible thinking
what is semantic memory and what does it encompass
words, facts, concepts
what is procedural memory and what does it encompass
learning without conscious effort
what is the biological hypothesis in terms of memory decline in late adulthood
decline in neuron density of frontal cortex and hippocampus
extensive loss of nerve cells in hippocampus = early sign of Alzheimer’s
what is dementia
progressive disorder marked by disturbance of higher cognitive function’
what is cerebrovascular dementia
strokes leave dead brain cells and lead to dementia
combo of genetic and environmental factors
what are the 2 types of alzheimers disease
sporadic and familial
what is sporadic AD
in terms of onset, hereditary and onset
no obvious family history
later onset
heredity may play a role in somatic mutation
what is familial AD
in terms of onset, hereditary and onset
early onset
genes on chromosomes 1, 14 and 21
rapid progress
what are 7 symptoms of Alzheimer’s
memory problems - recent memory first
deterioration of skillful and purposeful movements
depression
problems speaking, reading, understanding
sleep disturbances
poor judgement
disorientation to time and place
what happens to the neurons in alzheimers brain deterioration
neuron death
neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons
plaques outside neurons
chemical changes
what are 6 risk factors for alzheimers
stroke
high blood pressure
obesity and diabetes
smoking
depression and chronic stress
head trauma
what are 4 protective factors for alzheimers
high education = more synaptic connections = cognitive reserve
physical activity
diet
HRT and anti-inflammatory drugs
