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HDS > Mod 1: Histo and Cell Bio > Flashcards

Mod 1: Histo and Cell Bio Flashcards

1
Q

Components of plasma membrane

A

Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Proteins (integral and peripheral)
Oligosaccharides

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2
Q

TEM: proteins fixed with

lipids fixed with

A

proteins: glutaraldehyde
lipids: osmium tetroxide

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3
Q

Functions of plasma membrane

A
  1. Communication: receptors
  2. Intercellular connection: flexible boundary, protects cellular contents, supports cell structure
  3. Physical barrier: separates inside from outside
  4. Selective permeability
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4
Q

Functions of integral membrane proteins

A 
Pumps
Channels
Receptors
Linkers
Enzymes
Structural
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5
Q

Types of channel proteins

A 
Voltage gated (neurons)
Ligand gated (specific protein binds)
Stress activated (hypoxia, temp, etc)
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6
Q

Types of vesicular transport

A

Exocytosis

Endocytosis

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7
Q

Types of endocytosis

A 
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis (constitutive)
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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8
Q

Pathway of side chain cleavage of steroid hormone synthesis

A

Cholesterol
Pregnalone (via desmolase)
Progesterone, aldosterone, testosterone

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9
Q

Autophagy

A

proteins, organelles, and other cellular structures degraded in lysosomal compartment – prevents cell death

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10
Q

Mitophagy

A

selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress

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11
Q

Ecto vs. endoplasm

A

Ecto: area of cytoplasm w/o organelles
Endo: area of cytoplasm w/ organelles

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12
Q

Polyribosomes

A

ribosomes associated with mRNA

–occur in cytosol or RER membranes

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13
Q

What proteins synthesized by RER?

A 
albumin
hormones
milk proteins
receptors
antibodies
collagen
enzymes
lipoproteins
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14
Q

Microsomes

A

don’t exist in cell life, only in lab
Homogenize organelles, centrifuge –> create microsomes
Use antibody against protein of interest/radioactive aa (Met)
Used to determine rate of protein synthesis, half life of protein

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15
Q

SER AKA …

In what cells

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells

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16
Q

4 major tissue types

A

epithelial
connective
muscle
neuronal

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17
Q

Hypertrophy

Atrophy

A

hypertrophy: cell size inc can result in inc organ size
atrophy: cell size dec can result in dec tissue/organ size

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18
Q

Hyperplasia

A

inc in cell numbers/cell density –> cell proliferation

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19
Q

Dysplasia

A

mature cell types are displaced by inc numbers of IMMATURE cells of the SAME type

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20
Q

Metaplasia

A

mature cell types are displaced by inc numbers of MATURE cells of a DIFF type

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21
Q

Anaplasia

A

reversion of cells to more primitive or de-differentiated form

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22
Q

Neoplasia

A

pathological process that results in the formation and growth of a neoplasm/tumor, which may be benign or malignant

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23
Q

Benign

A

abnormal cell prolif is encapsulated or physiologically constrained
metastasis is not possible
cell growth//division is slow and minimally invasive ot proximal tissues
cells do NOT progress to anaplastic state

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24
Q

Malignant

A

abnormal cell prolif with high deg of invasiveness, anaplasia and metastasis
untreated chromosomal instability inc with time
cells achieve autonomy (induce creation of own blood supply while repelling immune sys function)

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25
Carcinoma
malignant neoplasm that originates from EPITHELIAL tissue
26
Adenocarcinoma
malignant neoplasm that originates form GLANDULAR EPITHELIAL tissue
27
Sarcoma
malignant neoplasm that originates from NON-EPITHELIAL source tissue
28
Changes in cellular architecture
``` hypertrophy atrophy hyperplasia dysplasia metaplasia anaplasia neoplasia ```
29
Loss of cellular architecture
inflammation necrosis apoptosis
30
Inflammation
response to tissue damage vasodilation of proximal blood vessels inflitration of proximal tissues by WBCs (inflammation precedes tissue repair and death)
31
Necrosis
cell death characterized by loss of plasma membrane integrity cellular contents released into surrounding tissue and many cause inflammatory response/amplify cell death numbers`
32
Apoptosis
cell death induced by enzymatic autolysis (caspases), followed by controlled membrane-enclosure of cytoplasmic and nuclear fragments inflammatory responses are minimized
33
Intracellular accumulations
``` lipids proteins glycogen Ca/Ca salts pigments ```
34
Intracellular accumulations: lipids
triglycerides cholesterol cholesterol esters (fatty liver, atherosclerosis)
35
Intracellular accumulations: proteins
normal or abnormal conformations: protein amyloids tau proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases nemaline crystals (skeletal myopathies)
36
Intracellular accumulations: glycogen
(genetically acquired glycogen storage disorders -- afffects organs that store glycogen) liver skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues
37
Intracellular accumulations: Ca/Ca salts
calcification/deposition of calcium phosphate crystals --> rigidity within cell/membrane due to pathological release of Ca stores from intracellular storage sites
38
Intracellular accumulations: pigments
lipofuschin hemosiderin melanin conjugated bilirubin
39
Extracellular accumulations
collagen | other insoluble proteins
40
Extracellular accumulations: collagen
excess collagen deposition (AKA fibrosis) can limit gas exchange in lung tissue can minimize nutritive exchange b/w peripheral tissue cells and vascular supply
41
Extracellular accumulations: other insoluble proteins
amyloid proteins | tau proteins deposited in proximal extracellular space
42
Difference b/w organelle and cellular structure
organelle is enclosed in membrane | cellular structure is not (ex. ribosomes)
43
Cell membrane permeable to... | impermeable to...
Permeable: small gas molec, all non-polar molec | Impermeable (require transport): polar molec (water), charge ions
44
How can cell membranes differ among cells?
``` phosphate head group specific fatty acids amount of cholesterol proteins in membrane lipid rafts -- cluster protein receptors for specific ligands ```
45
Euchromatin vs heterochromatin
Eu: uncoiled for transcription (less electron dense/lighter) Hetero:coiled (more electron dense/darker)
46
Describe nucleolus and processing/protein association of rRNA
``` Nucleolus: where rRNA is synthesized using DNA from Nuclear Organizing Regions Processing of rRNA occurs in... 1. nuclear organizing region 2. fibrillar region 3. granular region ```
47
Difference b/w proteins synthesized in cytoplasm vs. RER
Cytoplasm: remain in cell RER: export from cell, remain in cell membrane
48
Presence of abundant RER indicates... | Abundant SER indicates...
RER: protein-secreting cell --(RER makes proteins to be exported out of cell) SER: produce lipids, cholesterol --liver cells, steroid-producing cells --skeletal and cardiac muscle cells --> store Ca in sarcoplasmic reticulum
49
Describe location of RER relative to cell
near nucleus | RER continuous with nuclear membrane
50
Describe diff faces of golgi and where located in relation to cell
Cis/forming face: convex and closest to nucleus | Trans/maturing face: concave and farthest from nucleus
51
Golgi function
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides synthesized in golgi | sugar chains attached to proteins from RER (glycosylation)
52
COP I vs COP II
COP I coated vesicles return proteins to RER (from golgi) | COP II coated vesicles direct modified proteins of golgi to appropriate compartment in the transport pathway
53
How can golgi faces be stained to distinguish them
trans/maturing face becomes dark after thiamine pyrophosphatase rxn stain cis face with osmium
54
Mitochondrial fusion occurs...
embryological development | when cells have inc oxidative demands or local environmental stressors
55
Parkinson's caused by...
imbalance b/w mitochondrial fusion and fission
56
Secondary lysosome
form when small primary lysosomes filled with ingested material fuse
57
How can you tell if a lysosome is active?
internal heterogenous appearance
58
Peroxisome
degradative organelle potent oxidases and catalase enzyme break down products of oxidative metabolism (H2O2) budding/fission
59
Peroxisomes can be identified in non-human mammals by...
presence of urate oxidase crystals
60
Proteasomes located... | Function
``` located in both the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm function is "targeted" protein degradation (misfolded, viral, no longer necessary proteins tagged with ubiquitin label) ```
61
Changes in protein turnover may be indicative of...
Aging (dec) Disease (dec) Growth/recovery (inc)
62
Describe receptor mediated endocytosis with clathrin
ligand binds to receptor adaptin binds to receptor clathrin binds to adaptin (clathrin binding deforms membrane inward) Dynamin constricts apical region to form vesicle Clathrin and adaptin detach from vesicle and are recycled Endosome fuses with lysosome
63
Cytoskeletal elements and what they are made of
Microfilaments (made from actin) Intermediate filaments (made from keratin and vimentin) Microtubules (made from tubulin subunits, hollow)
64
Dynamic properties of cytoskeleton due to...
rapid polymerization/depolymerization (except intermediate filaments)
65
Terminal web
formed by microfilaments (actin) that are densely concentrated hear the apical membrane terminal web is meshwork that anchors a variety of membrane proteins, microvilli, and sterovilli
66
Microvilli formed by what protein subunit? Cilia and flagella? Stereocilia?
microvilli: actin sterocilia: actin cilia and flagella: microtubules
67
Intermediate filaments
do NOT undergo rapid polumerization anchoring fibers for desmosomes (macula adherens) protective barrier against mechanical damage and surface pathogens
68
Microtubules
largest diameter Hollow Alternating tubulin subunits (alpha and beta) rapidly polymerize/depolymerize -- MTOC (centrosome)
69
Tubulin subunits added/removed from...
free end (furthest from MTOC)
70
What motor proteins move along microtubules?
Kinesin: moves organelles AWAY from MTOC Dynein: moves organelles TOWARD MTOC
71
How is cilia anchored to plasma membrane? | Describe structure of anchor and cilia
basal body basal body is derived from MTOC and is comprised of 9-radially arranged triplets of microtubules cilia structure then changes to 9+2 array (axoneme) Cilia and flagella are both ensheathed by plasma membrane
72
Axoneme
9+2 arrangement of cilia and flagella
73
What cytoskeletal element forms spindle apparatus?
microtubules
74
How are microtubules arranged at centriole?
nine-triplet arrangement
75
Explain appearance of glycogen vs. ribosomes
Glycogen forms rosette aggregates (in cytoplasm of liver, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle cells) Ribosomes: smaller than flycogen
76
Describe interactions of cadherin and other proteins at apical surface
Cadherin (which is Ca dependent) is bound to Catenin proteins which connect to actin via actin binding proteins (vinculin, formin-1, alpha-actinin) This protein complex connects to the apical surface of cell --> forms junction to hold cells together
77
Describe CAM structure
have 2-6 immunoglobulin like domains | Immunoglobulins are not Ca dependent
78
Major difference b/w cadherin and immunoglobulins
cadherin is Ca dependent | immunoglobulins are not Ca dependent
79
What happens if you remove Ca from tissues?
cannot be held together b/c cadherin is Ca dependent
80
Paracellular vs. transcellular pathways
Paracellular: transfer of substances across an epithelium by passing through the intercellular space between the cells Transcellular: substances travel through the cell, passing through both the apical membrane and basolateral membrane.
81
What proteins in zonula occludens are the "zip lock bag"
occludin and claudin
82
Zonula occludens prevent what pathway?
paracellular (b/w cells)
83
What proteins involved in zonula occludens?
``` Afadin Nectin JAMS ZO-1 ZO-2 ZO-3 Occludin Claudin ```
84
Nectin and JAMs are both
cis-homodimers in immunoglobulin subfamily stabilized by S-S bonds trans-homo cell adhesion
85
JAMS determines
formation of cell polarity
86
What proteins involved in zonula adherins?
``` Afadin Nectin Cadherins --desmocolins --desmogleins Catenin complex Plaque --desmoplakin --plakoglobin --plakophilin ```
87
What are the types of cadherins in zonula adherins?
desmocolins | desmogleins
88
What are the types of plaques in zonula adherens?
desmoplakin plakoglobin plakophilin
89
What are the proteins involved in hemidesmosome?
``` BPAG 1 (plakin family) BPAG 2 Plectin (plakin family) Integrin subunit Beta4 integrin Plaque Plate Anchoring filament (laminin 5) ```
90
In hemidesmosome, what protein pairs are involved in connecting the basal lamina to intermed filaments?
BPAG1 and BPAG2 | Plectin and Integrin subunit beta4 integrin
91
What autoimmune disorder caused by problem with hemidesmosomes? Symptoms?
``` Bullous pemphigoid (BPAG =bullous pemphigoid antigen) blisters b/w epidermis and dermis ```
92
How many monomers make connexon?
6 connexins
93
Hydrophilic or hydrophobic channel formed by connexons b/w cells?
hydrophilic
94
Primary cilia
nonmotile each cell only has 1 9+0 arrangement involved in signalling (control cell division and gene expression) sense fluid flow in kidneys, liver, pancreas hedgehog pathway
95
Hedgehog pathway
signalling in embryonic development | primary cilia involved in this
96
Disruption of primary cilium or basal body can lead to...
``` Ciliopathies such as: cystic kidneys obesity mental retardation blindness other developmental malformations ```
97
Characteristics of epithelial tissues
strong apical-basal polarity (involved in function) avascular (blood supply is from connective tissue below) attached to basal lamina in EM / basement membrane (basal+reticular laminae) in LM attachments b/w cells maintained by specialized intercellular junctional complexes high rate of turnover high rate of mitosis after injury prominent nerve supply and lymp vessels
98
Basal lamina vs Reticular lamina What type of collagen is in each?
basal: layer of extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells, on which the epithelium sits - -includes collagen type IV - ---produced by epithelial cells reticular: thin layer below basal lamina that is mainly composed of collagen and serves to anchor the basal lamina to underlying connective tissue - -includes collagen type III - ---produced by fibroblasts of adj connective tissue
99
Parenchyma
cells of a tissue/organ that are responsible for the specialized function of that tissue/organ part of organ that carry "juice" around made of epithelia ex. GI tract, secretory acini and ducts
100
Stroma
internal support structure of gland/organ | contains blood vessels and nerves
101
Apical surface
in contact w/ outside world | ex. skin, GI tract
102
Blood supply to epithelial tissue in...
supporting tissues below basal lamina
103
Describe PAS staining of basal lamina/basement membrane
PAS stains hexos compounds in EC matrix | both basal lamina and basement membrane stain pos for PAS
104
Most cancers derived from what layer? | What makes the difference in the prognosis?
``` Epithelial cells (ex. basal cell carcinoma -- rapid division and migration is normal part of function) if metastasizing cells caught b/f cross basal lamina and reach blood vessels in underlying connective tissue, good prognosis ```
105
What germ layers are epithelial tissues derived from
all 3 germ layers
106
Functions of epithelial tissue
protection absorption, filtration (selective absorption) secretion/excretion movement (myoepithelium associated with gland)
107
Myoepithelium
epithelial tissue involved in mvmt in glands contractile (actin and myosin)
108
General functions of... squamous cuboidal columnar
squamous: absorption (less distance for diffusion), protection cuboidal: active mvmt (space for cell machinery) columnar: secretion and transport (space for cell machinery, apical modifications on surface inc SA)
109
What cell types usually have apical modifications?
columnar
110
Pseudostratified epithelium
all cells reach basal lamina some reach surface (usually only columnar cells)
111
Transitional epithelium
stratifed, but cells at lumenal surface take on diff shapes during diff functions (bladder -- squamous when stretched)
112
Purpose of mucus
mucin and long chain carbs impede flow of water past cells (protect cells)
113
Stereocilia
nonmotile long, branching on pseudostratified columnar reabsorb fluids from sperm development (epididymis
114
Describe shape changes in transitional epithelium
folded vesicles with plaques close to apical surface (pieces of fixed plasma membranes in vesicles) folds like ping pong table up to plasma membrane vesicles can resist chemicals in urine like urea
115
Merocrine
small part comes up to apical surface, then releases contents exocytosis of both serous and mucous no damage of cell, no change in homeostasis
116
Apocrine
bud of cell leaves, then lyses to secrete contents cells lose cytoplasmic volume (must be replaced to remain viable) ex. sweat glands of axilla and anogenital region
117
Holocrine
entire cell with secretory products leaves surface, then falls apart and releases contents cells must undergo apoptosis, then degrade to release contents ex. sebaceous glands in skin
118
Cytocrine
pass products from one cell to adj cell | melanocytes release melanin to keratinocytes directly
119
Exocrine vs endocrine gland
exo: retain duct and stalk endo: lose duct and stalk -- ductless, then angiogenesis; products move through basal lamina to blood vessel or moved through EC fluid
120
Unicellular exocrine gland | Unicellular endocrine gland
exo: goblet cells in resp epithelium endo: DNES and APUD
121
DNES stands for | APUD stands for
DNES: diffuse neuroendocrine sys APUD: amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation (endocrine signalling, GI tract -- products regulate gut motility)
122
Organization types of secretory cells
Tubular (simple, simple branched, simple coiled, compound) Acinar = berry (simple, simple branched, compound) Compound tubuloacinar
123
How to identify serous vs mucous cells under microscope
Serous stain darker due to proteins (enzymes) | Mucini stain lighter due to glycoproteins
124
Mesoderm gives rise to...EPITHELIAL tissues
lining of urinary tract parenchyma of gonads lining of ducts of repro sys lining of heart and all blood and lymp vessels serous membranes of thoracic and abdominal cavities cells of adrenal gland -- cortex
125
Endoderm gives rise to...EPITHELIAL tissues
line gut line resp tract epithelial parenchyma of accessory digestive glands (liver, pancreas, spleen) endocrine glands inferior to the head (except adrenal glands) all exocrine glands
126
Ectoderm gives rise to...EPITHELIAL tissues
epidermis
127
Basement membrane
acellular proteinaceous support medium secreted by epithelial cells
128
Endothelium vs enterocytes
Endothelium: thin layer of SIMPLE SQUAMOUS cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels --each cell is called an endothelial cell Enterocyte: SIMPLE COLUMNAR epithelial cells in the intestine
129
Lamina propia
loose connective tissue that is adjacent to epithelial tissues highly vascularized below basement membrane
130
Function of keratin
prevent water loss | prevent damage from external injury
131
What cell types can be keratinized/nonkeratinized?
Stratified squamous
132
Basement membrane vs basal lamina
Basement membrane: LM | Basal lamina: EM
133
Proteins and glycoproteins of basal lamina | What are these produced by?
``` laminins collagen type IV perlecan nidogen enactin produced by epithelial cells ```
134
Type of collagen in basal lamina vs reticular lamina? | Collagen produced by?
Basal: type IV produced by epithelial cells Reticular: type III produced by fibroblasts of connective tissue
135
Describe basal lamina in urinary filtration barrier of kidney
Basal laminae of 2 cells can fuse
136
Describe epithelium of small intestine
plicae covered in villi which are covered in sheet of simple columnar epithelium
137
Brush border structure
composed of microvilli microvilli and their glycocalyx create a striated appearance terminal web anchor microvilli (actin filaments that project from lateral membrane of epithelial cells at apical domain)
138
Terminal bar
made of zonula occludens and zonula adherens | near apical surface
139
3 cell types of respiratory epithelium that can be seen with LM Describe each
``` columnar cells (pseudostratified, covered in cilia) basal cells (stem cells taht repopulate damaged/aging epithelia) goblet cells (unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus) ```
140
How to distinguish cilia from microvilli in photomicrograph
cilia have darker staining basal bodies
141
How to distinguish diff cell junctions in EM
Zonula occludens: membranes of adj cells converge and fuse, obliterating the intercellular space Zonula adherens: separated by small intercellular space Gap junctions: membranes held closer together than desmosomes
142
Gap junctions found in what kinds of tissue?
cardiac muscle smooth muscle epithelial cells (cell-cell communication)
143
Epithelial cells comprise all types of multicellular glands (endocrine and exocrine) except for the...
adrenal glands | post pituitary gland
144
2 parts of exocrine gland | What does this have to do with classification?
``` secretory unit (epithelial cells that synthesize and release the product) excretory duct (lined by one or more layers of epithelial cells) First term describes arrangement of excretory duct; second describes arrangement of secretory units (ex. simple tubular, compound tubular) ```
145
Epithelial Transition Zones | define and list locations
area where there is a dramatic transition b/w epithelial tissue types (occur within one-cell width) - -usually from stratified epithelium to simple columnar epithelium 1. distal esophagus --> cardia region of stomach 2. pyloric region of stomach --> duodenum 3. ileum --> cecum (small intestine --> large intestine) 4. rectum --> anal canal 5. midpoint of the larynx 6. endocervix --> ectocervix 7. bulbar conjunctiva --> cornea of eye
146
What makes ETZ's clincally relevant?
due to differing mitotic rates of 2 tissue types, dysregulation of mitosis is common --> cancer hotspots - -cells have diff receptors and have diff cell signalling cues - -cells in chronic state of inflammation (inc mitotic rate, inc loss of control of cell cycle)
147
Describe differences in mitosis in stratified epithelium vs. simple columnar epithelium
Stratified - -slower mitosis - -stem cells in lower layers - -vertical axis for mitosis (daughter cells pushed to lumen) Simple - -faster mitosis - -stem cells distributed throughout - -horiz axis for mitosis (daughter cells produced adj to original cell)
148
Functions of integument and parts they are associated with
1. barrier - -mechanical traumas, abrasions (cornified tissues of epidermis, CT of dermis, hypodermis) - -heat loss (adipose of hypodermis) - -UV (melanin in epidermis) - -toxic aqueous compounds, water loss (epidermal lipids) - -intrinsic and adaptive immune function (epidermis) 2. transmitter - -sensory nerve endings in epidermis and dermis - -eccrine sweat glands (evaporative cooling) - -basal keratinocytes (absorb UV for vit D3 synthesis) - -apocrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair, nails, epidermis, hypodermis, olfactory and visual signals, sexual signals
149
What kind of secretion in eccrine sweat glands? | Describe eccrine gland structure, secretion, and location.
merocrine simple, coiled structure watery secretion (poor in proteins, contains NaCl, urea, and ammonia) -- evaporative cooling secretory portion located b/w reticular dermis and hypodermis
150
3 layers of integument and their features
``` Epidermis --keratinized stratified squamous epithelium --from ectoderm --avascular Dermis --DENSE connective tissue --from mesoderm or ectomesenchyme --vascular Hypodermis --LOOSE connective tissue --from mesoderm or ectomesenchyme --vascular ```
151
Skin and cutis refer to what layers?
epidermal and dermal only (not hypodermal)
152
Dermis AKA
corium
153
Hypodermis aka
tela subcutanea subcutaneous fat superficial fascia Camper's, Scarpa's, Buck's, Colle's fascia etc
154
2 classifications of skin and features
``` thick skin --volar surfaces (palms and soles) thickness: 400 um - 1400 um glaborous (hairless) lacks pigment eccrine sweat glands ```
155
Type I Keratins
Acid keratins | K9-38
156
Type II Keratins
Basic/neutral keraatins | K1-K8, K71-K86
157
Keratinocytes synthesize... | what are their functions?
keratins lamellar granules keratohyaline granules (lamellar and keratohyaline take keratins and reinforce them and the plasma membrane)
158
Functions of keratinocytes
sequester melanin from melanocytes | mechanical, chem, UV protection to underlying tissues
159
Describe dimer of keratin filaments
each dimer has 1 acid and 1 base keratin
160
Permeability barrier on skin surface composed of... | which is developed by...
ceramide lipids are developed by lamellar granules (synthesized at base of skin, then released and form lipid coat on squames -- metabolically dead)
161
Keratohyaline granules location function
located in cells below squames | fix keratin against plasma membrane (ex. filaggrin, loricrin)
162
Keratin pairs expressed at diff levels of skin
``` Differentiated cells (K2 -- K10) Stem cells (K1 -- K9/K10) Basal cells (K5 -- K14) ```
163
What proteins stabilize plasma membrane in keratinized tissues?
involucrin small proline-rich proteins loricrin
164
What protein stabilizes keratin in keratinized tissue?
filaggrin
165
How many melanocytes per keratinocytes
1 melanocyte per 6 keratinocytes
166
Where are melanocytes located?
among cells of stratum basale
167
What initiates melanogenesis?
signalling caused by DNA photodamage and repair in adj keratinocytes
168
Coversion to melanin
Tyrosine --> DOPA --> melanin (packaged into melanosomes)
169
Melanosomes are refractory. explain
last for a long time
170
Functions of melanin
chelates toxins and excretes them | prevent damage to keratinocyte nuclei by forming "umbrella"
171
What is a characteristic feature of dendritic cells in skin?
Birbeck granules
172
What 2 epidermal cell types are derived from neural crest and are located among cells of stratus basale?
``` melanocytes tactile epithelial (merkel) cells ```
173
Keratinocytes derived from...
ectoderm
174
dendritic (langerhans) cells derived from...
monocytes
175
Villose | where are cells with this capability found?
hair-bearing | thin skin
176
Glaborous | where are cells with this capability found?
hairless | thick skin
177
Why is stratum spinosum given this name?
Artifact of tissue preservation: shrink and pull on desmosomal attachments to make stellate/spiny appearance (due to presence of spot desmosomes)
178
What junctions hold layers of epidermis together?
spot desmosomes
179
How are epidermis and dermis connected? | By what junctions?
Dermoepidermal junction --high SA (epidermal/rete pegs point down and dermal papillae point up) --interfingering -- mechanical strength Hemidesmosomes from keratinocytes to basement membrane
180
Epidermal pegs are from what epidermal layers? | What do they connect with?
From stratum basale and spinosum | Connect with dermal papillae of dermis
181
What part of papillary dermis ground substance is a loose connective tissue that impedes water flow?
glycosaminoglycans
182
Anastamosis
artery passes directly to vein w/o passing to capillary bed first
183
Hypodermis
``` fatty and membranous layers fatty layer (loose Ct invested with adipose tissue) -- CT conducts sup major nerves and vessels ```
184
Integumentary appendages
``` hair eccrine glands (water for evaporative cooling) apocrine glands sebaceous glands (signalling) nails ```
185
Shaft of hair
cuticle cortex medulla (resistant hair keratins)
186
Root of hair
``` dermal papilla (signalling center) -- baldness affected by this inner and outer root sheaths ```
187
What structures are associated with hair follicle?
sebaceous gland and | arrector pili muscle
188
What kind of stimulation do eccrine glands respond to?
cholinergic
189
Describe staining of eccrine glands
stain dark | --high mito conc involved in ion transport
190
Nails... arise from: describe:
Arise from an epithelial fold Heavily keratinized Grow from nail matrix at base of fold Dermis beneath nail bed attaches to underlying phalanx (bone) as a skin ligament
191
Free nerve endings
unmyelinated dendrites w/o a connective tissue capsule or associated epithelial cell - -nociceptive (pain) - -benign warmth (140 deg F), heat (greater than 140 deg F), and cold - -respond to mechanical, thermal, and chemical (bradykininin, histamine) stimuli
192
Mammary glands
lobular (15-20 lobes separated by suspensory/Cooper's ligaments) Lobes empty into lactiferous ducts --> lactiferous sinus
193
Inactive vs active mammary glands
Inactive: small ducts, few lobules, poorly developed secretory alveoli Active: large ducts, numberous lobules
194
Describe hormones during pregnancy and after childbirth
Pregnancy: estrogen and progesterone promote proliferation and activation of mammary gland tissue, but suppress prolactin After parturition: declining estrogen and progesterone allow increased prolactin --> lactation
195
What kind of secretion for lipids in milk? | proteins in milk?
Lipids: apocrine Protein: merocrine
196
Colostrum
rich in lipids rich in immunoglobulins (secretory IgA) secreted by plasma cells that migrated to stroma during pregnancy (transcytosis of IgA)
197
Oxytocin
stimulates milk EJECTION
198
Organ
2 or more tissues that together form unique functions
199
Is the hypodermis part of the integument?
No, it is the superficial fascia (deep fascia on muscle surface)
200
Melanosome appearance under microscope
Granulated appearance
201
Keratohyaline granules -- baso or acidophilic?
Basophilic (stain blue)
202
Tonofibrils
tonofibrils of keratinocytes are intermediate filaments that terminate in desmosomes between adjacent cells --create short, cytoplasmic extensions from adj cells to physically link cells together
203
What kind of skin sense receptors in dermal papillae?
Meissner's corpuscles
204
Describe blood supply in dermal papillae
post-capillary venules which drain deoxygenated blood from extensive capillary networks in papillary region towards the venous sys in the deeper region of the reticular layer
205
What changes cause mechanoreceptors to release NT's to activate sensory neurons nearby?
deformations in plasma membranes of cells
206
What is diff b/w thin and thick skin when viewed under microscope?
Thin skin has the same epidermal layers as those described for thick skin, however the stratum lucidum is usually not visible with a light microscope but may be seen as or two layers using an electron transmission microscope in thin skin
207
How are hair follicle/sebaceous gland and nail matrix similar?
found in the dermis but are comprised of invaginations of cells from the overlying epidermial layers – stratum basale and stratum granulosum.
208
What type of muscle is arrector pili? | What div of NS controls?
smooth m | autonomic
209
Glands that supply hair follicles in gen body vs axilla/ano-genital regions?
Gen body: sebaceous glands via duct (holocrine) | Axilla/ano-genital regions: apocrine glands (apocrine)
210
Eccrine sweat glands derived from...
epidermis during fetal development
211
Thermoregulated sweating via ...NS | Emotional sweating...
Thermoregulated: parasym Emotional: sym
212
What is exocrine gland classification for mammary glands?
compound tubuloacinar (tubuloalveolar)
213
How many lobes in adult female breast?
15-20 lobes | each lobe has numerous terminal duct lobular units
214
How do mammary glands drain?
lobe --> sinus --> duct --> nipple
215
Prolactin secreted by what gland? | What does it induce?
ant pituitary | induces hypertrophy and inc mitotic rates of glandular and ductal epithelial cells
216
How does cell-cell contact differ b/w epithelia and connective tissues?
epithelia: cells connect to each other to form a sheet connective: limited cell-cell contact (floating in matrix of ground substance and fibular proteins)
217
Functions of EC matrix
``` organ support force transmission and dissipation developmental signalling transient cell signalling conducts mechanical stress ```
218
Functions of ground substance of connective tissues
binds water to resist compressive stresses mediates diffusion or binding or signalling molec provides space and substrate for cell migration
219
3 components of ground substance
GAGS (glycosaminoglycans = repeating linear disaccharide polymers) Proteoglycans Multiadhesive glycoproteins
220
Proteoglycan
central chain of repeating units of hyaluronan -- Core proteins w/ several GAG chains linked to central chain (proteoglycans organize GAGs) --lots of SA --electrostatic charge --> bind water due to charge and mechanics (make up structures of ground substance)
221
Proteoglycan vs glycoprotein
Proteoglycan: mostly GAGs with protein core (signalling and structure) Glycoprotein: mostly protein that is glycated (signalling)
222
Functions of fibrillar proteins of connective tissues
resiste tensile stresses organization allows absorption or transmission of force (strong in one direction, weak in another)
223
Mesenchyme
undifferentiated CT
224
What holds adipocytes together?
strands of aereolar tissue
225
Collagen fibril, fiber, and bundle lengths
2 -- 400 nm fibrils 5 -- 30 um fibers 15 -- 400 um primary bundles
226
What is a major difference b/w collagen and elastin synthesis?
Collagen: some occurs inside cell, some outside Elastin: all outside cell
227
What proteins involved in elastin synthesis?
Fibulln 1 | Fibrillins 1 and 2
228
How to identify macrophages under microscope
irregular border (pseudopods, active phagocytosis) numerous vesicles eccentric nucleus
229
How to identify mast cells under microscope
basophilic granules
230
How to identify plasma cells under microscope
pale golgi abundant basophilic RER Clock face or cartwheel nucleus
231
Connective tissue
widely spaced living cells embedded in nonliving matrix | produce and secrete EC matrix (ground substance and protein fibers)
232
Multiadhesive glycoproteins named
laminin | fibronectin
233
proteoglycans named
decorin syndecan aggrecan
234
GAGs named
hyaluronan chondroitin sulfate heparin sulfate
235
3 protein fiber types in ECM
collagen fiber bundles reticular fibers elastic fibers
236
What is another name for reticular fibers? | How can they be distinguished under LM?
Collagen III | stain darker than other collagen types
237
Where are reticular fibers found?
``` lymphatic tissue lymph nodes tonsils thymus spleen ```
238
Elastic fibers are complexes of...
elastin and fibrillin | fibrillin binds elastin -- allows ECM to stretch then recoil to original shape
239
Where are elastic fibers found?
dermis nuchal ligament ligamenta flava
240
Fibroblasts/fibrocytes
connective tissue cells that produce ECM blasts: active producer of ECM cytes: maintain existing ECM
241
blast vs cyte
blast: immature cell type that has a high metabolic rate and a high mitotic rate cyte: mature cell type with baseline metabolic rate that usually divides infrequently and/or only when damaged
242
Mesenchymal cells under microscope
spindle, star shape
243
Synovial joint
freely movable joint | hyaline cartilage
244
Diaphysis Epiphysis Metaphysis Medullary cavity
Diaphysis: shaft of long bone Epiphysis: expanded ends of long bone Metaphysis: flared portion of bone b/w diaphysis nad epiphysis Medullary cavity: cavity filled with bone marrow
245
Lacunae vs lamellae in bone
Lacunae: contain osteocytes Lamellae: layers of compact bone in osteon
246
Blood vessels and nerves run in what in bone?
Haversion canals | Volkmann's canals
247
Trabeculae in bone
spongy bone arrangeemtn
248
Osteoblast becomes osteocyte when...
osteoblast is surrounded by osteoid/bone matrix
249
PTH role | What cells have PTH receptors?
secreted by parathyroid gland -- regulates Ca and phosphate levels in EC fluid Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and T cells have PTH receptors (osteoclasts do NOT have receptors--indirect effect)
250
Consistency and composition of bone and cartilage
``` Cartilage -- all organic --gel consistency --40% collagen type II --60% proteoglycans Bone -- organic 50% and inorganic 50% --rigid consistency --95% collagen type I --5% other GAG --Ca-phosphate crystals ```
251
Cartilage functions
support (embryonic skelton, airways) shock absorption (IV disc, meniscus) smooth sliding surface (joints) framework (development and growth of bone)
252
Cartilage and bone -- vascular or avascular?
Cartilage: avascular - nutrients diffuse through ECM Bone: vascular
253
Appositional growth vs Interstitial growth
Appositional: chondrogenic cells grow from outside --> in | Interstitial growth: chondrocytes divide to make more chondrocytes (occurs lower down in tissue, w/in the cartilage)
254
2 layers of perichondrium
``` fibrous chondrogenic (not yet differentiated, but do express Sox9) ```
255
Chondrocyte cellular structure
secretory vesicles secrete EC matrix from chondrocytes | have many gogli, RER
256
Types of cartilage and where found in body
``` hyaline (ribs, trachea, larynx, articular cartilage) Firbrocartilage (collagen type I): IV disc, pubic symphysis, attachment of tendons, meniscus Elastic cartilage (elastic fibers): external ear, auditory canal, epiglottis ```
257
Rheumatoid arthritis | How is it treated?
Chondrocytes die, caritlage disruputed, bones rub against each other, calcification near joints Synovial membrane thickens Treat with anti-TNF alpha (TNF alpha is cytokine involved in inflammation)
258
Pannus
projection of synovial membrane that is thickened and hyperperforated macrophages and immune cells called to area
259
If there is no Sox9...
prevents chondrogenic layer to differentiate into chondrocytes
260
What substances are involved in osteoclast resorption of bone?
alpha3 beta3 integrin in sealing zone | Cathepsin K enzyme
261
How does calcitonin affect bone remodeling?
calcitonin receptor on osteoclasts inhibit function
262
RANKL
expressed by osteoCYTES | contribute to osteoCLAST differentiation
263
Sclerostin
secreted by osteoCYTES to inhibit osteoBLAST function
264
Why remodel bone?
allows bone to respond to loads maintain materials properties allows repair of microdamage participates in serum Ca2+ regulation
265
Perichondrium | Perichondrium is what kind of connective tissue?
fibrous connective tissue sheath that covers hyaline cartilage and elastic cartilage dense irregular (has blood supply)
266
What types of cartilage have perichondrium?
Hyaline and elastic | Fibrocartilage and articular (type of hyaline) does not have perichondrium
267
Hyaline cartilage located
``` Temporary skeleton of embryo  Articular cartilage  Respiratory tract (nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi)  Costal cartilages ```
268
Elastic cartilage located
External ear  Epiglottis  Auditory tube
269
Fibrocartilage located
``` Intervertebral disks (Outer rings – Annulus fibrosus)  Articular disks of the knee (Menisci)  Temporomandibular joint (fibrocartilage discs partition the joint capsule)  Sternoclavicular joints  Pubic symphysis ```
270
Concentric vs interstitial lamellae
Concentric: surround Hav sys Interstitial: located b/w Hav sys; indicate bone remodelling
271
Endosteum
continuous b/w compact bone and trabecular bone lines haversion canals and medullary cavities covers entire surface of trabeculae comprised of a thin layer of osteoprogenitor cells which form new trabecular bone
272
Sharpey's fibers
thick collagen type I fibers located in periosteum and penetrate into outercircumferential lamellae of bone adhere the periosteum (both layers) to the underlying bone
273
Endochondral ossification
matrix of hyaline cartilage replaced with osteoid (which is produced by osteoblasts) occurs in epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
274
5 endochondral ossification zones
``` Resting zone/quiescent zone Proliferative zone Hypertrophic zone Calcified cartilage zone Ossification zone ```
275
Intramembranous ossification
results in the formation of flat bones from a precursor fibrous membrane (mesenchyme) --forms b/w periosteum (sandwiched -- diploe)
276
What is the only long bone that is formed via intramembranous ossification? Clinical relevance?
Clavicle | frequently fractured
277
Plexuses of enteric NS
submucosal | myenteric
278
Parietal membrane | Visceral membrane
Parietal: line closed body cavities Visceral: continuous with membranes covering organs
279
Serous membrane
comprised of mesothelium (simple squamous with underlying aerolar CT) epithelial cells produce serous fluid
280
Mesentery
specialized membranes comprised of 2 layers of mesothelia that ensheathe bv, nn, lymphatic vessels, and ligaments
281
Adventitia
outer layer of dense irregular CT for attachment of organs to surrounding tissue
282
What cytokine is involved in aging?
TGF - beta inc amounts after injury dec amounts when aging (red rates of collagen and elastic fiber production) -- affects skin, joint capsules, bv (arteriosclerosis)
283
Arteriosclerosis
hardening/stiffening of arteries -- inc resistence to blood flow and blood pressure (depletion of elastic fibers)
284
2 types of cells in NS
neurons | glia
285
Glia
supporting cells that help maintain a suitable microenvironment for neurons. These cells are ten times more abundant than neurons
286
What myelinating cell can for myelin sheath around only one cell? Many cells?
One cell: schwann (PNS) | Many cells: oligodendrocytes (CNS)
287
``` alpha1 adrenergic receptors alpha2 beta1 beta2 What NS do they stimulate? ```
Sym NS alpha 1: contraction of smooth muscle alpha 2: inhibit norepinephrine release (presynaptic terminals f postganglioic sympathetic neurons -- feedback control) beta 1: inc heart rate (cardiac muscle) beta 2: relaxation of smooth muscle beta 3: thermogeneisis and lipolysis in adipose tissue
288
Nicotinic Ach receptors | Muscarinic Ach receptors
Skeletal muscle nicotinic: excitatory, found at somatic efferent endplates Neuronal: excitatory, found at autonomic ganglia (parasym and sym) Muscarinic M1: excitatory, found at postganglionic parasym targets Muscarinic M2: inhibitory, found at postganglionic parasym targets
289
Function of golgi
``` synthesis of proteins and lipoproteins form acrosome in sperm lysosome formation sort proteins post-translational modification of proteins process carbs addition of sugar, sulfate, phosphate residues pack proteins in granules process acid hydrolases ```
290
How does lysosome maintain acidic interior?
proton pump
291
Function of lysosome
heterophagy (break down bacteria) breakdown of bone during remodeling (via osteoclasts) Autophagy (destroy worn-out organelles) Form thyroid hormone Remodel tissue Endocytosis of LDL and release of cholesterol
292
Function of peroxisome
``` lipid metabolism (beta oxid of long chain fatty acids) synthesize cholesterol, plasmalogens Degrade H2O2 (product of oxidative rxns) ```
293
Lysosomes originate from what organelle?? | Peroxisomes
Lysosomes: golgi Peroxisomes: ER
294
Lipofuscin
yellow-brown pigment that accumulates with age in cells,
295
Cell arrangement for | Consititutive vs regulated secretion
Constitutive: not polarized Regulated: apical/polarized
296
During conversion of myoblasts to myotubes, ... is lost in processing
glycogen lost in center due to processing
297
Type I muscles are red because
myoglobin content | meant to contract all of the time
298
Long distance exercise inc what type of skeletal muscle?
Type I (slow) increase
299
What type of skeletal muscle can convert to another type?
Type II can convert to type I | Hypertrophy of type IIb fibers, not inc in number
300
Intrafusal vs extrafusal SKELETAL fibers
Intra: contain encapsulated proprioceptors (muscle spindles) Extra: innervated by alpha-motor neurons and generate tension during contraction
301
Compare innervation of intrafusal and extrafusal fibers
Intra: sensory and gamma motor neurons Extra: alpha motor neurons
302
Functions of CT in skeletal muscle?
transmit blood and lymph vessels, nerves | transmit muscle forces
303
A band vs I band
A band: dark -- has thick filaments (myosin) | I band: light -- has thin filaments (actin)
304
Sarcomeres
basic contractile unit of striated muscle myofibrils that are stacked end-to-end (Z-to-Z line) Composed of: Thick filaments (myosin type II) Thin filaments (actin) Accessory proteins (tropomyosin and troponin)
305
Z line
bisects I band (light band)
306
H band
bisects A band (dark band) | Rod portions of myosin molecule
307
M line | What is major protein here?
bisects H band (which bisects the A band) Lateral connections b/w myosins Major protein is creatine kinase (ADP)
308
Is there overlap of thin filaments in A band? | I band?
A band: some overlap with thin filaments | I band: non overlapping part of thin filaments
309
Thick filament surrounded by how many thin filaments in cross section?
6
310
Specimens (proteins, lipids) fixed with what chemicals | Contrast enhanced with what chemicals
Proteins: glutaraldehyde Lipids: osmium tetroxide Contrast enhanced with uranyl acetate and lead citrate
311
Freeze fracture prep of tissue
Cells frozen in liq N Blocks of cells fractured (at hydrophobic layer of membranes) Surface ice evaporated in vacuum Shadowed with carbon and platinum Organic material digested with acid leaving replica Carbon-Pt replica put on grid and examined under TEM
312
What organelles are involved in the uptake, storage, and release of Ca?
Mit | ER
313
What proteins located in inner mito membrane?
cytochromes dehydrogenases flavoproteins
314
What is the enz involved in side chain cleavage of steroid hormone synthesis? What organelle does it occur in? Where does this process occur in the organelle?
Desmolase | occurs in mito -- desmolase is on the inner mito membrane
315
What processes occur in mito?
``` Side chain cleavage in steroid hormone synthesis (inner mito membrane) TCA cycle (matrix) Protein synthesis (matrix) ETC w/ ATP synthase (inner mito membrane) Ca granule storage(matrix) Import site (outer membrane) beta oxid -- fatty acid synthesis aa oxid urea and heme synthesis ```
316
Inner mito membrane impermeable to
``` H Na ATP GTP CTP large molec ```
317
Mito cytochrome P450 sys causes
hydroxylation of cholesterol to steroid hormones bile acid synthesis (liver) vit D synthesis (kidney)
318
What protein in mito involved in aging?
Cytochrome c | involved in cell death and apoptosis
319
Ectoplasm | Endo
ecto: area of cytoplasm w/o organelles endo: area of cytoplasm w/ organelles
320
SER functions
``` steroid synthesis Ca uptake and release synthesis and breakdown of glycogen detox drugs, metabolic wastes formation of lipoproteins and production of bile ```
321
What types of cells is SER in?
steroid secreteing hepatocytes skeletal muscle
322
Dysregulated metabolism for: short duration longer duration longest duration
short: loss of cell homeostasis (cellular adaptations for survival in sub optimal conditions) longer: loss of cell viability/loss of tissue viability (necrosis and apoptosis) longest: loss of organ viability (multiple organ failure/organismal death)
323
Reversible cell injury leads to... | Irreversible ...
reversible: adaptation irreversible: cell death (apoptosis, necrosis)
324
Metabolic disruptors
``` hypoxia infection chemical physical trauma immunologic genetic nutritional imbalance ```
325
What type of cell death induces inflammation? | does not induce inflammation?
Inflammation: necrosis none: apoptosis
326
Increased demand, increased stimulation (growth factors, hormones) leads to...
hyperplasia/hypertrophy
327
Decreased nutrients, decreased stimulation leads to...
atrophy
328
Chronic irritation (physical/chemical) leads to...
metaplasia (REVERSIBLE replacement of one differentiated cell type with another)
329
Reduced O2 supply, chem injury, microbial infection... acute and transient vs progressive and severe
Acute: cellular swelling fatty change Severe: necrosis or apoptosis
330
What happens when cell ruptures and contents leak to EC fluid?
inflammation
331
Describe state of plasma membrne and cell size in necrosis vs apoptosis.
Plasma membrane: necrosis -- disrupted vs apoptosis -- intact Cell size: necrosis -- swelling vs apoptosis -- shrinkage
332
Describe nuclear states of necrotic cell | What do all of these lead to?
Karyolysis: nuclear fading (chromatin dissolution due to DNAases and RNAases) Pyknosis: nuclear shrinkage (DNA condenses into shrunken basophilic mass) Karyorrhexis: nuclear fragmentation (pyknotic nuclei membrane ruptures and nuc undergoes fragmentation) ALL LEAD TO ANUCLEAR NECROTIC CELL
333
Two types of macrophages: function and chemicals released
M1: induces inflammation -- TNF alpha and IL-1 M2: promotes tissue repair -- TGF beta and IL-10
334
IL-1 specific effect in inflammation
elevated systemic temp | pyrogenic effect on thermoregulatory area of hypothalamus
335
Caseous necrosis
soft, cheese like center containing dead tissue consolidated by surrounding granulomatous tissue peripheral border of lymphocytes and macrophages fibroblasts lay down collagen to surround destructed tissue ex. lung damage due to TB
336
Coagulative necrosis
vascular blockage/infarct in solid ORGANS (LIVER, SPLEEN, HEART WALL) due to blockage, WBC infiltration immediately after cell death is minimal --> tissue arch may be preserved for days/weeks
337
Liquefactive necrosis
bacterial/fungal infections or hypoxic conditions in brain tisse (many WBC recruited, highly vascularized, pus left over)
338
Fat necrosis
fat cell destruction through enz degradation or blunt force trauma (lipids released from cells are calcified --> chalky, white appearance)
339
Fibrinoid necrosis
``` immune complexes (Ag/Ab) deposited on arterial walls (under pressure) result in microscopic tears and fibrin deposition WBC infiltration ex. SLE (autoimmune) ```
340
Membrane blebbing
membrane forms pocket/pouch which releases cellular contents during APOPTOSIS
341
How is membrane affected during apoptosis?
orientation of lipids changed | head group reversed
342
Where is Ca in body?
Stored in ALL CELLS b/c is a cofactor for many enz (especially those used in apoptosis) Mito and SR also have Ca
343
What 4 things occur when apoptosis happens?
1. ATP dec (regulates barrier in mito membrane, so lose control of what goes in and out) 2. ROS inc (in mito, damage to lipids, proteins, DNA) 3. Entry of Ca (inc mito permeability, activate enz) 4. Protein misfolding, DNA damage --> pro-apoptotic proteins
344
Ischemia leads to... | Hypoxia leads to...
Ischemia: apoptosis Hypoxia: necrosis
345
Ischemia
lack of blood supply to tissue
346
Layers in centrifuged blood WITH anticoagulant
Plasma (albumin, fibrinogen, immunoglobulins, lipids, hormones, vit, salts) Buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets) RBCs
347
What are the main components of plasma? | Function?
Mostly water, also albumins (smallest and most abundant plasma protein) globulins (immuno and nonimmuno) Fibrinogen (largest plasma protein) supplies EC tissues with water, functions in dehydration, osmoregularity, pH balance
348
Hematocrit
vol RBC/total vol blood
349
Functions of blood
Transport of formed elements (gases, wastes, nutrients, hormones) Immune response Regulate body temp Maintain acid-base and osmotic balance
350
Where are albumins synthesized? | Maintain...of blood
Liver | maintain osmotic pressure of blood
351
If albumin is low...colloid osmotic pressure, which leads to...
dec colloid osmotic pressure | fluid accumulation
352
Immunoglobulins secreted by... | non-immune globulins...
Immuno: antibodies secreted by plasma cells (mature B cells) | non-immune: alpha and beta globulins secreted by liver (ion transport -- zinc, iron)
353
Alpha and beta globulins involved in transport of what ions?
zinc | iron
354
Fibrinogen vs fibrin
During clotting, fibrinogen acts with coagulation factors to create fibrin (insoluble protein)
355
Serum vs plasma
serum lacks fibrinogen (b/c coagulated, so fibrin has linked to become fibrinogen) Plasma: fibrinogen (b/c anticoagulent added)
356
Types of leukocytes
Granulocytes - -Neutrophils - -Eosinophils - -Basophils Agranulocytes - -Lymphocytes - -Monocytes
357
Thrombocytes
platelets (part of buffy coat)
358
Characteristics of RBC
anucleate biconcave lack organelles "floating scale bars" -- compare size of other cells
359
What is the diameter of RBC?
7 um
360
Importance of disc shape in RBC
facilitates gas exchange more Hb molec are closer to plasma membrane than they would be in normal cell shorter distance for gases to travel within the cell
361
Staining of RBC
Fe in hemoglobin is POS charged, so binds neg charged eosin stain Dark red around outside (this is where Hb is)
362
Hemoglobin molec structure
2 alpha, 2 beta peptide chains tetramer each chain has polypeptide group
363
Fetal vs adult Hb
Fetal: higher affinity for O2 than adult alpha2Ggamma2 and alpha2Agamma2 Adults: alpha2beta2 and alpha2delta2 (small amount of neonatal--very similar to HbF)
364
Sites of eythropoeisis during development
yolk sac liver (2nd trimester) spleen bone marrow (close to birth)
365
RBC cytoskeletal proteins | Which ones are contractile?
Specrtrin tetramers Actin (contractile) Adducin (contractile) Tropomyosin (contractile)
366
Glycophorins
attach cytoskeletal protein network to RBC cell membrane | Involved in blood typing (A, B, O glycophorin antigens)
367
2 blood typing methods
1. BLOOD drawn and mixed with ANTIBODIES against type A and B to determine agglutination 2. back typing: SERUM mixed with BLOOD known to be type A or B
368
Antibodies that are in type A, B, AB, and O
A: anti-B Ab B: anti-A O: both anti-A and anti-B AB: no antibodies
369
Characteristics of all WBC
larger than RBC Cytoplasm has primary, azurophilic granules that are difficult to see in LM (lysosomes w/ hydrolygic enzymes help digest bacteria) in response to stimulus, leave blood stream and enter CT
370
All leukocytes contain...granules, but granulocytes contain...granules
All leukocytes: primary granules | Granulocytes: primary and specific
371
How are cadherins organized?
Dimers
372
What junction type is not associated with any cytoskeletal elements?
gap junctions
373
Proteins that mark functioning melanosomes | Enzyme of melanin synthesis
TRP-1 and TRP-2 | Tyrosinase
374
Components of dermoepidermal junction
b/w epidermal pegs and dermal papillae - -hemidesmosome (stratum basale to basement membrane) - -lamina lucida (weakest part of DEJ) - -lamina densa - -anchoring fibrils (join lamina densa to papillary dermis)
375
Nail structure
arise from epithelial fold heavily keratinized cells grow from nail matrix dermis beneath nail bed attaches to phalanx via skin ligament

HDS (14 decks)

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