MIDTERM: BLOOD Flashcards
● specialized connective tissue consisting
of:
○ cells
○ fluid extracellular material
called PLASMA
● Propelled mainly by rhythmic contractions
of the heart
BLOOD
AVERAGE BLOOD VOLUME IN ADULT
5 L of blood
FORMED ELEMENTS circulating in the plasma
● ERYTHROCYTES (RBC- red blood cells)
● LEUKOCYTES (WBC- white blood cells)
● THROMBOCYTES (platelets)
● PALE YELLOW LIQUID
● contains growth factors and other
proteins released from platelets during
clot formation, which confer biological
properties very different from those of
plasma.
SERUM
● erythrocytes in the bottom half of the tube
● Erythrocytes comprise the sedimented material and their volume
● normally about 44% of the total blood volume in healthy adults
● Low: causes ANEMIA
HEMATOCRIT
● thin gray-white layer
● between the plasma and the hematocrit
● about 1% of the volume
● consists of:
○ leukocytes
○ platelets
both less dense than erythrocyte
● Includes the concentration ranges of erythrocytes, platelets, and leukocytes in normal blood
● represents the differential count or percent range for each type of leukocyte
BUFFY COAT
● an aqueous solution
● pH 7.4
● containing substances of low or high molecular weight that make up 7% of its volume.
● is usually an indicator of the mean composition of the extracellular fluids in tissues.
PLASMA
MAJOR PLASMA PROTEIN
➢ most abundant plasma protein
➢ is made in the liver
➢ serves primarily to maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood.
ALBUMIN
➢ made by the liver and other cells
➢ Include:
■ transferrin and other transport factors
■ fibronectin
■ prothrombin and other coagulation factors
■ lipoproteins and other proteins entering blood
from tissues.
GLOBULINS (α- and β-globulins)
➢ secreted by plasma cells in many locations.
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (antibodies or γ-globulins)
➢ the largest plasma protein (340 kD)
➢ made in the liver
➢ during clotting, polymerizes as insoluble, cross-linked fibers of fibrin that block blood loss from
small vessels.
FIBRINOGEN
➢ comprise a defensive system important in inflammation and destruction of microorganisms
COMPLEMENT PROTEINS
● Used to study appearance of blood
● routinely stained with mixtures of dyes:
○ eosin (acidic dye)
○ methylene (basic dye)
○ azures dye - more useful in staining cytoplasmic granules containing charged proteins and proteoglycans
BLOOD SMEAR
○ produce METACHROMASIA in stained leukocytes
○ Special stains named hematologists who introduced their own modifications into the
original mixture:
■ Giemsa stain
■ Wright stain
AZUROPHILIC GRANULES
✓ terminally differentiated structures lacking nuclei
and completely filled with the O2-carrying
protein hemoglobin
✓ unnucleated→ NO NUCLEUS
● only blood cells whose function does not require them to leave the vasculature
● suspended in an isotonic medium
● shape:
○ FLEXIBLE BICONCAVE DISC
○ provides a large surface-to-volume ratio and
facilitates gas exchange
● Size:
○ approximately 7.5 µm in diameter
○ 2.6-µm thick at the rim
○ only 0.75-µm thick in the center
● uniform dimensions
● present in most tissue sections
● used by histologists as an internal standard to estimate the size of other nearby cells or structures
ERYTHROCYTES (red blood cells or RBCs)
RBC NORMAL CONCENTRATION IN WOMEN
approximately 3.9-5.5 million/µL
or mm3
RBC NORMAL CONCENTRATION IN MEN
4.1-6.0 million/µL
● loosely in stacks of RBCs
ROULEAUX
● best-known membrane of any cell because of its ready availability
● consists of about:
○ 40% LIPID
○ 10% CARBOHYDRATE
○ 50% PROTEIN
● integral membrane proteins:
○ band 3 protein - ion channels
○ glycophorin A - anion transporter
PLASMALEMMA
Human erythrocytes normally survive in the
circulation for about
120 DAYS
● erythrocytes below the normal range
● tissues are unable to receive adequate oxygen
● Symptoms:
○ lethargy, shortness of breath, fatigue, skin pallor (skin discoloration), and heart palpitations
● Cause:
○ iron deficiency, or
○ blood loss with a stomach ulcer or
○ excessive menses
ANEMIA
LOW hgb
Iron deficiency anemia
HIGH hgb (Iron overload)
→Due to high concentration of RBC mapuno ug
iron→then mag cell lysis which results to low
concentration of RBC
Sideroblastic anemia
● result capillary blockage
● shape:
○ stiff and sticky sickle cell (CRESCENT SHAPED)
● cause:
○ Mutation in the 7th amino acid of the beta-globin chain
○ Substitution of valine instead of glutamic acid
○ Plasmodium falciparum
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
● over production of RBCs
● may be a physiologic adaptation
○ ex. individuals who live at high
altitudes, where O2 tension is
low
● Elevated hematocrit
○ increases blood viscosity
○ putting strain on the heart
○ If severe, can impair circulation
through the capillaries
ERYTHROCYTOSIS/ POLYCYTHEMIA
● leave the blood and migrate to the tissues
for immunity
● Number of leukocytes:
○ varies according to age, sex, and
physiologic conditions
○ Healthy adults: 4500-11,000
leukocytes per microliter of blood
LEUKOCYTES (white blood cells or WBCs)
Granulocytes consist of two major abundant
cytoplasmic granules:
(often called azurophilic granules in blood cells)
LYSOSOMES
Granulocytes consist of two major abundant
cytoplasmic granules:
bind neutral, basic, or acidic stains and have specific functions
● have polymorphic nuclei with two or more distinct (almost separated) lobes
● include:
○ NEUTROPHILS
○ EOSINOPHILS
○ BASOPHILS
SPECIFIC GRANULES
lack of specific granules, but do contain some azurophilic granules (lysosomes)
AGRANULOCYTES
“Leukocyte, Monocytes”
signal cell if there is injury or trauma
CYTOKINES
○ a process which involves chemical mediators attraction of neutrophils to bacteria
○ causes leukocytes to rapidly accumulate where their defensive actions are specifically needed
- migration of cell sa site of injury → taxi syndrome of RBC, WBC, and Thrombocytes
CHEMOTAXIS
attract other leukocytes
CHEMOKINES
- adhesive protein involved in platelet/leukocyte/endothelial interactions
- adheres cell from the site of injury
P-selectin
- leak out of cell outside the blood vessel
- a process when e leukocytes send extensions through the openings between the endothelial
cells, migrate out of the venules into the surrounding tissue space, and head directly for the site of injury or invasion
DIAPEDESIS
Allergic reaction; mostly kay <1%
Basophil
Helminthic-Parasitic infection; and allergic reaction
Eosinophil
Elevated in adults->mostly bacterial infection
Neutrophil
Elevated in kids→more on viral infection
Lymphocytes
Chronic/High inflammation and infection
Monocytes
➢ Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes
➢ inactive and spherical while circulating
but become amoeboid and highly active
during diapedesis and upon adhering to
ECM substrates such as collagen
➢ the first leukocytes to arrive at sites of
infection where they actively pursue
bacterial cells using chemotaxis and
remove the invaders or their debris by
phagocytosis→ FRUSTRATED PHAGOCYTE→
mag result to cell death→ suicidal cell
(bida bida man)
Life span:
➢ half-life of 6-8 hours in blood
➢ 1-4 days in connective tissues before
dying by apoptosis
NEUTROPHIL
✓ 1%-4% of leukocytes
✓ same size as a neutrophil or slightly larger, but with a characteristic bilobed nucleus
✓ main identifying characteristic: → acidophilic specific granules typically staining pink or red
✓ specific granules are seen to be oval in shape, with flattened crystalloid
MAJOR BASIC PROTEINS (MBP+EOSINOPHIL PEROXIDASE)
Life span: 1-2 wk
EOSINOPHIL
✓ 1% of circulating leukocytes (If
>1% magka acute interstitial nephritis)
✓ difficult to find in normal blood smears
BASOPHILS
✓ most numerous type of agranulocyte in
normal blood smears
✓ “cluster of differentiation” or CD
markers→ distinguished using antibodies
with immunocytochemistry or flow
cytometry
LYMPHOCYTES
✓ precursor cells of macrophages
✓ The chromatin is less condensed than in lymphocytes and typically stains lighter than that of large lymphocytes
✓ All monocyte-derived cells are antigen- presenting cells with important roles in immune defense as well as tissue repair
APPEARANCE: C-shaped or Horseshoe shaped
MONOCYTES
✓ Fragment of megakaryotes
✓ promote blood clotting and help repair
minor tears or leaks in the walls of small
blood vessels
✓ preventing loss of blood from the
microvasculature
LIFE SPAN: 10 days
THROMBOCYTES → PLATELET →
BLOOD CLOTTING
Normal platelet counts range:
150,000 to 400,000/μL (mm3) of blood
Low platelet→____________________→dengue
thrombocytopenia
Elevated Platelet→___________->liver disease
and splenomegaly
thrombocytosis
➢ the production of blood cells by the bone marrow
is adjusted to the body’s needs, increasing its
activity several-fold in a very short time.
Bone Marrow
TYPE OF BONE MARROW
abundance of blood and hematopoietic cells
RED BONE MARROW
TYPE OF BONE MARROW
filled with adipocytes that exclude most hematopoietic cells.
YELLOW BONE MARROW
graveyard of RBC
SPLEEN
INTRINSIC blood coagulation factors
12, 11, 9, 8
COMMON blood coagulation factors
10, 5, 2, 1
EXTRINSIC blood coagulation factors
3 & 7
● called “cluster of differentiation” or CD markers
● can be distinguished using antibodies with
immunocytochemistry or flow cytometry
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS MAJOR CLASSES:
■ helper
■ CD4 +
■ produce in BONE
MARROW mature in BONE MARROW
B LYMPHOCYTES
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS MAJOR CLASSES:
■ cytotoxic
■ CD8+
■ mature in THYMUS, produce in BONE MARROW
T LYMPHOCYTES
● genetic in origin
● ex. decreasing adhesion to the wall of
venules, by causing the absence of
specific granules, or with deficits in certain
factors of the azurophilic granules
● Individuals experience BACTERIAL
INFECTIONS
NEUTROPHIL DEFECTS
● associated with allergic reactions and
helminthic infections
● found in the connective tissues underlying
epithelia of the:
○ bronchi
○ gastrointestinal tract
○ uterus
○ vagina
EOSINOPHILIA
● group of disorders involving neoplastic
proliferation of lymphocytes
● failure of these cells to undergo apoptosis
● are considered MALIGNANT because they can very
easily become widely spread throughout the body
LYMPHOMA
● rare autosomal recessive
● platelet surface needed to bind
subendothelial collagen and begin the
cascade of events leading to clot
formation
GLYCOPROTEIN IB DEFICIENCY
