MIDTERM: BLOOD Flashcards by Sunwoo's Berry

● specialized connective tissue consisting
of:
○ cells
○ fluid extracellular material
called PLASMA
● Propelled mainly by rhythmic contractions
of the heart

BLOOD

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AVERAGE BLOOD VOLUME IN ADULT

5 L of blood

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FORMED ELEMENTS circulating in the plasma

● ERYTHROCYTES (RBC- red blood cells)
● LEUKOCYTES (WBC- white blood cells)
● THROMBOCYTES (platelets)

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● PALE YELLOW LIQUID
● contains growth factors and other
proteins released from platelets during
clot formation, which confer biological
properties very different from those of
plasma.

SERUM

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● erythrocytes in the bottom half of the tube
● Erythrocytes comprise the sedimented material and their volume
● normally about 44% of the total blood volume in healthy adults
● Low: causes ANEMIA

HEMATOCRIT

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● thin gray-white layer
● between the plasma and the hematocrit
● about 1% of the volume
● consists of:
○ leukocytes
○ platelets
both less dense than erythrocyte
● Includes the concentration ranges of erythrocytes, platelets, and leukocytes in normal blood
● represents the differential count or percent range for each type of leukocyte

BUFFY COAT

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● an aqueous solution
● pH 7.4
● containing substances of low or high molecular weight that make up 7% of its volume.
● is usually an indicator of the mean composition of the extracellular fluids in tissues.

PLASMA

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MAJOR PLASMA PROTEIN
➢ most abundant plasma protein
➢ is made in the liver
➢ serves primarily to maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood.

ALBUMIN

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➢ made by the liver and other cells
➢ Include:
■ transferrin and other transport factors
■ fibronectin
■ prothrombin and other coagulation factors
■ lipoproteins and other proteins entering blood
from tissues.

GLOBULINS (α- and β-globulins)

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➢ secreted by plasma cells in many locations.

IMMUNOGLOBULINS (antibodies or γ-globulins)

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➢ the largest plasma protein (340 kD)
➢ made in the liver
➢ during clotting, polymerizes as insoluble, cross-linked fibers of fibrin that block blood loss from
small vessels.

FIBRINOGEN

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➢ comprise a defensive system important in inflammation and destruction of microorganisms

COMPLEMENT PROTEINS

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● Used to study appearance of blood
● routinely stained with mixtures of dyes:
○ eosin (acidic dye)
○ methylene (basic dye)
○ azures dye - more useful in staining cytoplasmic granules containing charged proteins and proteoglycans

BLOOD SMEAR

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○ produce METACHROMASIA in stained leukocytes
○ Special stains named hematologists who introduced their own modifications into the
original mixture:
■ Giemsa stain
■ Wright stain

AZUROPHILIC GRANULES

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✓ terminally differentiated structures lacking nuclei
and completely filled with the O2-carrying
protein hemoglobin
✓ unnucleated→ NO NUCLEUS
● only blood cells whose function does not require them to leave the vasculature
● suspended in an isotonic medium
● shape:
○ FLEXIBLE BICONCAVE DISC
○ provides a large surface-to-volume ratio and
facilitates gas exchange
● Size:
○ approximately 7.5 µm in diameter
○ 2.6-µm thick at the rim
○ only 0.75-µm thick in the center
● uniform dimensions
● present in most tissue sections
● used by histologists as an internal standard to estimate the size of other nearby cells or structures

ERYTHROCYTES (red blood cells or RBCs)

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RBC NORMAL CONCENTRATION IN WOMEN

approximately 3.9-5.5 million/µL
or mm3

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RBC NORMAL CONCENTRATION IN MEN

4.1-6.0 million/µL

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● loosely in stacks of RBCs

ROULEAUX

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● best-known membrane of any cell because of its ready availability
● consists of about:
○ 40% LIPID
○ 10% CARBOHYDRATE
○ 50% PROTEIN
● integral membrane proteins:
○ band 3 protein - ion channels
○ glycophorin A - anion transporter

PLASMALEMMA

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Human erythrocytes normally survive in the
circulation for about

120 DAYS

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● erythrocytes below the normal range
● tissues are unable to receive adequate oxygen
● Symptoms:
○ lethargy, shortness of breath, fatigue, skin pallor (skin discoloration), and heart palpitations
● Cause:
○ iron deficiency, or
○ blood loss with a stomach ulcer or
○ excessive menses

ANEMIA

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LOW hgb

Iron deficiency anemia

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HIGH hgb (Iron overload)

→Due to high concentration of RBC mapuno ug
iron→then mag cell lysis which results to low
concentration of RBC

Sideroblastic anemia

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● result capillary blockage
● shape:
○ stiff and sticky sickle cell (CRESCENT SHAPED)
● cause:
○ Mutation in the 7th amino acid of the beta-globin chain
○ Substitution of valine instead of glutamic acid
○ Plasmodium falciparum

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

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● over production of RBCs ● may be a physiologic adaptation ○ ex. individuals who live at high altitudes, where O2 tension is low ● Elevated hematocrit ○ increases blood viscosity ○ putting strain on the heart ○ If severe, can impair circulation through the capillaries

ERYTHROCYTOSIS/ POLYCYTHEMIA

● leave the blood and migrate to the tissues for immunity ● Number of leukocytes: ○ varies according to age, sex, and physiologic conditions ○ Healthy adults: 4500-11,000 leukocytes per microliter of blood

LEUKOCYTES (white blood cells or WBCs)

Granulocytes consist of two major abundant cytoplasmic granules: (often called azurophilic granules in blood cells)

LYSOSOMES

Granulocytes consist of two major abundant cytoplasmic granules: bind neutral, basic, or acidic stains and have specific functions ● have polymorphic nuclei with two or more distinct (almost separated) lobes ● include: ○ NEUTROPHILS ○ EOSINOPHILS ○ BASOPHILS

SPECIFIC GRANULES

lack of specific granules, but do contain some azurophilic granules (lysosomes)

AGRANULOCYTES “Leukocyte, Monocytes”

signal cell if there is injury or trauma

CYTOKINES

○ a process which involves chemical mediators attraction of neutrophils to bacteria ○ causes leukocytes to rapidly accumulate where their defensive actions are specifically needed - migration of cell sa site of injury → taxi syndrome of RBC, WBC, and Thrombocytes

CHEMOTAXIS

attract other leukocytes

CHEMOKINES

- adhesive protein involved in platelet/leukocyte/endothelial interactions - adheres cell from the site of injury

P-selectin

- leak out of cell outside the blood vessel - a process when e leukocytes send extensions through the openings between the endothelial cells, migrate out of the venules into the surrounding tissue space, and head directly for the site of injury or invasion

DIAPEDESIS

Allergic reaction; mostly kay <1%

Basophil

Helminthic-Parasitic infection; and allergic reaction

Eosinophil

Elevated in adults->mostly bacterial infection

Neutrophil

Elevated in kids→more on viral infection

Lymphocytes

Chronic/High inflammation and infection

Monocytes

➢ Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes ➢ inactive and spherical while circulating but become amoeboid and highly active during diapedesis and upon adhering to ECM substrates such as collagen ➢ the first leukocytes to arrive at sites of infection where they actively pursue bacterial cells using chemotaxis and remove the invaders or their debris by phagocytosis→ FRUSTRATED PHAGOCYTE→ mag result to cell death→ suicidal cell (bida bida man) Life span: ➢ half-life of 6-8 hours in blood ➢ 1-4 days in connective tissues before dying by apoptosis

NEUTROPHIL

✓ 1%-4% of leukocytes ✓ same size as a neutrophil or slightly larger, but with a characteristic bilobed nucleus ✓ main identifying characteristic: → acidophilic specific granules typically staining pink or red ✓ specific granules are seen to be oval in shape, with flattened crystalloid MAJOR BASIC PROTEINS (MBP+EOSINOPHIL PEROXIDASE) Life span: 1-2 wk

EOSINOPHIL

✓ 1% of circulating leukocytes (If >1% magka acute interstitial nephritis) ✓ difficult to find in normal blood smears

BASOPHILS

✓ most numerous type of agranulocyte in normal blood smears ✓ “cluster of differentiation” or CD markers→ distinguished using antibodies with immunocytochemistry or flow cytometry

LYMPHOCYTES

✓ precursor cells of macrophages ✓ The chromatin is less condensed than in lymphocytes and typically stains lighter than that of large lymphocytes ✓ All monocyte-derived cells are antigen- presenting cells with important roles in immune defense as well as tissue repair APPEARANCE: C-shaped or Horseshoe shaped

MONOCYTES

✓ Fragment of megakaryotes ✓ promote blood clotting and help repair minor tears or leaks in the walls of small blood vessels ✓ preventing loss of blood from the microvasculature LIFE SPAN: 10 days

THROMBOCYTES → PLATELET → BLOOD CLOTTING

Normal platelet counts range:

150,000 to 400,000/μL (mm3) of blood

Low platelet→____________________→dengue

thrombocytopenia

Elevated Platelet→___________->liver disease and splenomegaly

thrombocytosis

➢ the production of blood cells by the bone marrow is adjusted to the body’s needs, increasing its activity several-fold in a very short time.

Bone Marrow

TYPE OF BONE MARROW abundance of blood and hematopoietic cells

RED BONE MARROW

TYPE OF BONE MARROW filled with adipocytes that exclude most hematopoietic cells.

YELLOW BONE MARROW

graveyard of RBC

SPLEEN

INTRINSIC blood coagulation factors

12, 11, 9, 8

COMMON blood coagulation factors

10, 5, 2, 1

EXTRINSIC blood coagulation factors

3 & 7

● called “cluster of differentiation” or CD markers ● can be distinguished using antibodies with immunocytochemistry or flow cytometry

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS MAJOR CLASSES: ■ helper ■ CD4 + ■ produce in BONE MARROW mature in BONE MARROW

B LYMPHOCYTES

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS MAJOR CLASSES: ■ cytotoxic ■ CD8+ ■ mature in THYMUS, produce in BONE MARROW

T LYMPHOCYTES

● genetic in origin ● ex. decreasing adhesion to the wall of venules, by causing the absence of specific granules, or with deficits in certain factors of the azurophilic granules ● Individuals experience BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

NEUTROPHIL DEFECTS

● associated with allergic reactions and helminthic infections ● found in the connective tissues underlying epithelia of the: ○ bronchi ○ gastrointestinal tract ○ uterus ○ vagina

EOSINOPHILIA

● group of disorders involving neoplastic proliferation of lymphocytes ● failure of these cells to undergo apoptosis ● are considered MALIGNANT because they can very easily become widely spread throughout the body

LYMPHOMA

● rare autosomal recessive ● platelet surface needed to bind subendothelial collagen and begin the cascade of events leading to clot formation

GLYCOPROTEIN IB DEFICIENCY