Memory Flashcards
Define
Articulatory supression
the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember
Define
Autobiographical memory
a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory
Define
Central executive
directs attention and gives priority to particular activities
Define
Change detection
the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times
Define
Chunk
a term referring to individual pieces of information
Define
Chunking
a term referring to the process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
Define
Classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone
Define
Consolidation
time-dependent process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory, presumably by structural and chemical changes in the nervous system (e.g., the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons)
Define
Control processes
a process that is under the flexible, intentional control of the individual, that he or she is consciously aware of, and that are effortful and constrained by the amount of attentional resources available at the moment
Define
Cued Recall
the retrieval of memory with the help of cues
Define
Decay
the fading of a memory
Define
Deep processing
one of the extreme ends of the level of processing spectrum of mental recall through analysis of language used. It requires the use of semantic processing (how words work together to create meaning) which creates a much stronger memory trace
Define
Delayed-response task
task for nonhuman animals in which the animal is required to recall the location of a reward after a delay period has elapsed
Define
Digit span
the number of random digits from a series that a person can recall following a single auditory presentation
Define
Echoic memory
the sensory memory that register specific to auditory information (sounds)
Define
Elaborative rehearsal
a memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
Define
Encoding
allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory
Define
Encoding specificity
the principle that retrieval of memory is optimal when the retrieval conditions (such as context or cues) duplicate the conditions that were present when the memory was formed
Define
Episodic buffer
one of the components of working memory model. It is a temporary store that integrates information from the other components and maintains a sense of time, so that events occur in a continuing sequence
Define
Event-related potential (ERP)
the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event
Define
Explicit memory
one of the two main types of long-term human memory. It is the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts
Define
Free recall
a basic paradigm in the psychological study of memory. In this paradigm, participants study a list of items on each trial, and then are prompted to recall the items in any order
Define
Generation effect
a phenomenon where information is better remembered if it is generated from one’s own mind rather than simply read
Define
Hippocampus
the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the centre of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
Define
Iconic memory
the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information
Define
Implicit Memory
one of the two main types of long-term human memory. Uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them
Define
Levels of processing theory
focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.
Define
Long-term Memory (LTM)
the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model where informative knowledge is held indefinitely
Define
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons
Define
Maintenance rehearsal
the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information
Define
Memory
the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences
Define
Mental rotation
the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the human mind
Define
Mental time travel
the capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past (episodic memory) as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future (episodic foresight / episodic future thinking)
Define
Modal model of memory
a structural model that was developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. It describes three storage systems that are linearly connected and is described as a model for information processing
Define
Multiple trace model of consolidation
a memory consolidation model advanced as an alternative model to strength theory. It posits that each time some information is presented to a person, it is neurally encoded in a unique memory trace composed of a combination of its attributes
Define
Paired-associate learning
a classic memory paradigm that is used to understand how people encode and retrieve newly formed associations among stimuli.
Define
Partial report method
a method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled
Define
Perseveration
repeat or prolong an action, thought, or utterance after the stimulus that prompted it has ceased
Define
Persistence of vision
refers to the optical illusion that occurs when visual perception of an object does not cease for some time after the rays of light proceeding from it have ceased to enter the eye
Define
Personal semantic memory
a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience
Define
Phonological loop
a component of working memory model that deals with auditory information. It is subdivided into the phonological store (which holds words we hear) and the articulatory process (which allows us to repeat words in a loop)
Define
Phonological similarity effect
finding that immediate serial recall is impaired when lists of items are phonologically similar rather than distinct
Define
Phonological store
Linked to speech perception. Holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds
Define
Primacy effect
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
Define
Priming
the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus
Define
Proactive interference
the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning
Define
Procedural memory
a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills
Define
Propaganda effect
when a subject is more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before
Define
Reactivation
an important process resulting from reexposure to salient training-related information whereby a memory is brought from an inactive to an active state
Define
Recall
bring (a fact, event, or situation) back into one’s mind; remember
Define
Recency effect
occurs when more recent information is better remembered and receives greater weight in forming a judgment than does earlier-presented information
Define
Recognition memory
a subcategory of declarative memory, is the ability to recognize previously encountered events, objects, or people
Define
Reconsolidation
the process of previously consolidated memories being recalled and actively consolidated
Define
Rehearsal
a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories
Define
Release from proactive interference
restoration of the capacity to readily remember items of one type after switching categories of materials to be recalled
Define
Remember/know procedure
a procedure in which various memory tasks (e.g., recall, free recall) are used to measure and assess two different ways of accessing events from one’s past—episodic memory and semantic memory
Define
Repetition priming
ing a response to a stimulus through prior exposure to the same or a related stimulus
Define
Retrieval
the process in which information in your memory can be recalled
Define
Retrieval cue
a prompt that help us remember
Define
Retroactive interference
the tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material.
Define
Retrograde amnesia
a loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or information that was learned in the past
Define
Self-reference effect
a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which they are implicated in the information
Define
Sensory memory
the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended
Define
Serial position curve
a “U”-shaped learning curve that is normally obtained while recalling a list of words due to the greater accuracy of recall of words from the beginning and end of the list than words from the middle of the list
Define
Shallow processing
cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning
Define
Short-term memory (STM)
the capacity for holding, but not manipulating, a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
Define
Spacing effect
a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions
Define
Standard model of consolidation
summarized by Squire and Alvarez (1995); it states that when novel information is originally encoded and registered, memory of these new stimuli becomes retained in both the hippocampus and cortical regions.
Define
State-dependent learning
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.
Define
Synaptic consolidation
synonymous with late-phase long-term potentiation[2] and occurs within the first few hours after learning
Define
Systems consolidation
where hippocampus-dependent memories become independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years
Define
Testing effect
the finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
Define
Transfer-appropriate processing
a type of state-dependent memory specifically showing that memory performance is not only determined by the depth of processing (where associating meaning with information strengthens the memory; see levels-of-processing effect), but by the relationship between how information is initially encoded and how it is later retrieved.
Define
Visual icon
a visual representation (of an object or scene or person or abstraction) produced on a surface
Define
Visual imagery
mental imagery that involves the sense of having “pictures” in the mind
Define
Visuospatial sketch pad
the component of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information
Define
Whole report method
a method used in studies of iconic memory in which the participant attempts to recall all of the presented information
Define
Word length effect
the observation that lists of short words are recalled better than lists of long words
Define
Working memory
a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension
Definition
the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember
Articulatory supression
Definition
a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory
Autobiographical memory
Definition
directs attention and gives priority to particular activities
Central executive
Definition
the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times
Change detection
Definition
a term referring to individual pieces of information
Chunk
Definition
a term referring to the process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
Chunking
Definition
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone
Classical conditioning
Definition
time-dependent process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory, presumably by structural and chemical changes in the nervous system (e.g., the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons)
Consolidation
Definition
a process that is under the flexible, intentional control of the individual, that he or she is consciously aware of, and that are effortful and constrained by the amount of attentional resources available at the moment
Control processes
Definition
the retrieval of memory with the help of cues
Cued Recall
Definition
the fading of a memory
Decay
Definition
one of the extreme ends of the level of processing spectrum of mental recall through analysis of language used. It requires the use of semantic processing (how words work together to create meaning) which creates a much stronger memory trace
Deep processing
Definition
task for nonhuman animals in which the animal is required to recall the location of a reward after a delay period has elapsed
Delayed-response task
Definition
the number of random digits from a series that a person can recall following a single auditory presentation
Digit span
Definition
the sensory memory that register specific to auditory information (sounds)
Echoic memory
Definition
a memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
Elaborative rehearsal
Definition
allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory
Encoding
Definition
the principle that retrieval of memory is optimal when the retrieval conditions (such as context or cues) duplicate the conditions that were present when the memory was formed
Encoding specificity
Definition
one of the components of working memory model. It is a temporary store that integrates information from the other components and maintains a sense of time, so that events occur in a continuing sequence
Episodic buffer
Definition
the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event
Event-related potential (ERP)
Definition
one of the two main types of long-term human memory. It is the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts
Explicit memory
Definition
a basic paradigm in the psychological study of memory. In this paradigm, participants study a list of items on each trial, and then are prompted to recall the items in any order
Free recall
Definition
a phenomenon where information is better remembered if it is generated from one’s own mind rather than simply read
Generation effect
Definition
the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the centre of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
Hippocampus
Definition
the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information
Iconic memory
Definition
one of the two main types of long-term human memory. Uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them
Implicit Memory
Definition
focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.
Levels of processing theory
Definition
the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model where informative knowledge is held indefinitely
Long-term Memory (LTM)
Definition
a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Definition
the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information
Maintenance rehearsal
Definition
the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences
Memory
Definition
the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the human mind
Mental rotation
Definition
the capacity to mentally reconstruct personal events from the past (episodic memory) as well as to imagine possible scenarios in the future (episodic foresight / episodic future thinking)
Mental time travel
Definition
a structural model that was developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. It describes three storage systems that are linearly connected and is described as a model for information processing
Modal model of memory
Definition
a memory consolidation model advanced as an alternative model to strength theory. It posits that each time some information is presented to a person, it is neurally encoded in a unique memory trace composed of a combination of its attributes
Multiple trace model of consolidation
Definition
a classic memory paradigm that is used to understand how people encode and retrieve newly formed associations among stimuli.
Paired-associate learning
Definition
a method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled
Partial report method
Definition
repeat or prolong an action, thought, or utterance after the stimulus that prompted it has ceased
Perseveration
Definition
refers to the optical illusion that occurs when visual perception of an object does not cease for some time after the rays of light proceeding from it have ceased to enter the eye
Persistence of vision
Definition
a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience
Personal semantic memory
Definition
a component of working memory model that deals with auditory information. It is subdivided into the phonological store (which holds words we hear) and the articulatory process (which allows us to repeat words in a loop)
Phonological loop
Definition
finding that immediate serial recall is impaired when lists of items are phonologically similar rather than distinct
Phonological similarity effect
Definition
Linked to speech perception. Holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds
Phonological store
Definition
the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence
Primacy effect
Definition
the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus
Priming
Definition
the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning
Proactive interference
Definition
a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills
Procedural memory
Definition
when a subject is more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before
Propaganda effect
Definition
an important process resulting from reexposure to salient training-related information whereby a memory is brought from an inactive to an active state
Reactivation
Definition
bring (a fact, event, or situation) back into one’s mind; remember
Recall
Definition
occurs when more recent information is better remembered and receives greater weight in forming a judgment than does earlier-presented information
Recency effect
Definition
a subcategory of declarative memory, is the ability to recognize previously encountered events, objects, or people
Recognition memory
Definition
the process of previously consolidated memories being recalled and actively consolidated
Reconsolidation
Definition
a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories
Rehearsal
Definition
restoration of the capacity to readily remember items of one type after switching categories of materials to be recalled
Release from proactive interference
Definition
a procedure in which various memory tasks (e.g., recall, free recall) are used to measure and assess two different ways of accessing events from one’s past—episodic memory and semantic memory
Remember/know procedure
Definition
ing a response to a stimulus through prior exposure to the same or a related stimulus
Repetition priming
Definition
the process in which information in your memory can be recalled
Retrieval
Definition
a prompt that help us remember
Retrieval cue
Definition
the tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material.
Retroactive interference
Definition
a loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or information that was learned in the past
Retrograde amnesia
Definition
a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which they are implicated in the information
Self-reference effect
Definition
the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended
Sensory memory
Definition
a “U”-shaped learning curve that is normally obtained while recalling a list of words due to the greater accuracy of recall of words from the beginning and end of the list than words from the middle of the list
Serial position curve
Definition
cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning
Shallow processing
Definition
the capacity for holding, but not manipulating, a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
Short-term memory (STM)
Definition
a cognitive phenomenon in which distributing to-be-learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous, massed sessions
Spacing effect
Definition
summarized by Squire and Alvarez (1995); it states that when novel information is originally encoded and registered, memory of these new stimuli becomes retained in both the hippocampus and cortical regions.
Standard model of consolidation
Definition
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.
State-dependent learning
Definition
synonymous with late-phase long-term potentiation[2] and occurs within the first few hours after learning
Synaptic consolidation
Definition
where hippocampus-dependent memories become independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years
Systems consolidation
Definition
the finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
Testing effect
Definition
a type of state-dependent memory specifically showing that memory performance is not only determined by the depth of processing (where associating meaning with information strengthens the memory; see levels-of-processing effect), but by the relationship between how information is initially encoded and how it is later retrieved.
Transfer-appropriate processing
Definition
a visual representation (of an object or scene or person or abstraction) produced on a surface
Visual icon
Definition
mental imagery that involves the sense of having “pictures” in the mind
Visual imagery
Definition
the component of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information
Visuospatial sketch pad
Definition
a method used in studies of iconic memory in which the participant attempts to recall all of the presented information
Whole report method
Definition
the observation that lists of short words are recalled better than lists of long words
Word length effect
Definition
a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension
Working memory
Define
Declarative memory
the memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled
Define
Nondeclarative memory
a type of long-term memory that stands in contrast to explicit memory in that it doesn’t require conscious thought. It allows you to do things by rote. This memory isn’t always easy to verbalize, since it flows effortlessly in our actions
Define
Anterograde amnesia
a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact
Define
Episodic memory
the memory of every day events (such as times, location geography, associated emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured
Define
Semantic memory
portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience
Define
Flashbulb memory
a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was learned about
Define
Source monitoring confusion
a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience
Define
Cryptomnesia
occurs when a forgotten memory returns without its being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original
Definition
the memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled
Declarative memory
Definition
a type of long-term memory that stands in contrast to explicit memory in that it doesn’t require conscious thought. It allows you to do things by rote. This memory isn’t always easy to verbalize, since it flows effortlessly in our actions
Nondeclarative memory
Definition
a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact
Anterograde amnesia
Definition
the memory of every day events (such as times, location geography, associated emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured
Episodic memory
Definition
portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience
Semantic memory
Definition
a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was learned about
Flashbulb memory
Definition
a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience
Source monitoring confusion
Definition
occurs when a forgotten memory returns without its being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original
Cryptomnesia
What percentage of a long term memory is lost if it is not practiced after 3 years?
60%
What are the two major types of long-term memory?
Declarative (explicit)
Nondeclarative (implicit)
What are some types of nondeclarative memory?
Procedural memory
Classical conditioning
Habituation
What are the types of declarative memory?
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
What was different about H.M.’s brain? W
hat did this cause?
Parts of his temporal lobes were removed due to severe epilepsy
Lost declarative memory
Why did H.M. still have memories for skills?
Non-declarative memory such as those for skills are not processed by the part of the temporal lobe that was removed
What type of memory involves mental time travel?
Episodic memory
True or False:
Both types of declarative memory are associated with the same brain areas
False
Episodic and semantic memories activate different parts of the brain
True or False:
An episodic memory can turn into a semantic memory overtime
True
Which type of memory is the most resistant to amnesia?
Personal semantic memories
How can semantic memory be enhanced?
By associating it with episodic
i.e. create a personal semantic memory
What are the two common types of amnesia?
Retrograde
Anterograde
What are the vivid memories of an emotional event called?
Flashbulb memories
True or False:
Flashbulb memories are resistant to misinformation
False
They are often very accurate comapred to initial memories
______________ is a lack of clairty about the origins of a memory
Source monitoring confusion is a lack of clairty about the origins of a memory
