Knowledge Flashcards
Define
Anterior temporal lobe (ATL)
thought to be critical for semantic memory–our knowledge of objects, people, words, and facts
Define
Basic level
the level of mental categorization formed in the human memory that is the most easily and efficiently retrieved
Define
Categorisation
the action or process of placing into classes or groups.
Define
Category
a class or division of people or things regarded as having particular shared characteristics
Define
Cognitive economy
the combined simplicity and relevance of a categorization scheme or knowledge representation
Define
Concept
an abstract idea
Define
Conceptual knowledge
the knowledge of, or understanding of concepts, principles, theories, models, classifications, etc.
Define
Connectionism
an artificial intelligence approach to cognition in which multiple connections between nodes (equivalent to brain cells) form a massive interactive network in which many processes take place simultaneously and certain processes, operating in parallel, are grouped together in hierarchies that bring about results such as thought or action.
Define
Connectionist network
arrangements of several neurons into a network that can be entirely described by an architecture (how the neurons are arranged and connected), a transmission function (how information flows from one neuron to another), and a learning rule (how connection weights change over time)
Define
Crowding
the idea that categories with items that share many properties (i.e. animals) are more difficult to identify that those that share less properties (i.e. artefacts)
Define
Definitional approach to categorisation
explains how things can be put under a specific category if they meet the characteristics of the object, based on its definition
Define
Error signal
A voltage whose magnitude is proportional to the difference between an actual and a desired position
Define
Exemplar
a person or thing serving as a typical example or appropriate model
Define
Exemplar approach to categorisation
posits that there are various exemplars, that is, members of a category that serve as representations of the category which an individual utilizes to categorize objects
Define
Family resemblance
a similarity in the way people look because they are related
Define
Global level
Higher order categories (i.e. vehicle or furniture)
Define
Graceful degradation
the ability of a computer, machine, electronic system or network to maintain limited functionality even when a large portion of it has been destroyed or rendered inoperative
Define
Hidden units
Layers of a network that receive the input and give an output but we are not sure of why
Define
Hierarchical model
a model in which lower levels are sorted under a hierarchy of successively higher-level units
Define
Hierarchical organisation
an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity
Define
Hub and spoke model
proposes that areas of the brain specialised for different functions are linked to the anterior temporal lobe which integrates the information from these areas
Define
Lexical decision tasks
tasks that require the participant to quickly choose whether a group of letters make up a real word or not
Define
Mirror neurons
a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another
Define
Multiple-factor approach
proposes that instead of focusing on only one property or feature to distinguish between objects and animals, people use multiple factors to divide concepts within categories
Define
Output units
any piece of computer hardware equipment which converts information into human-readable form
Define
Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
posits that memory is made up of neural networks that interact to store information
Define
Prototype
a first or preliminary version of a device or vehicle from which other forms are developed
Define
Semantic dementia
a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both the verbal and non-verbal domains
Define
Semantic network approach
views the meaning of concepts as being determined by their relations to other concepts
Define
Sensory-functional (S-F) hypothesis
states that one’s ability to distinguish between inanimate and animate objects is determined by two systems, that is, one that distinguishes between sensory features and another that perceives functions
Define
Sentence verification technique
an alternative assessment method of reading comprehension that was designed to measure how the reader recalls text-specific information and reader-constructed meaning
Define
Specific level
lower level categories (i.e. Samsung Phone)
Define
Spreading activation
an analogous model for the association of ideas, memories, and the like, based on the notion that activation of one item stored in memory travels through associated links to activate another item
Define
Subordinate (specific) level
lower level categories (i.e. Samsung Phone)
Define
Superordinate (global) level
Higher order categories (i.e. vehicle or furniture)
Define
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression
Define
Typicality effect
states that individuals respond more quickly to typical examples of a category than they would to examples that are considered atypical
Definition
thought to be critical for semantic memory–our knowledge of objects, people, words, and facts
Anterior temporal lobe (ATL)
Definition
the level of mental categorization formed in the human memory that is the most easily and efficiently retrieved
Basic level
Definition
the action or process of placing into classes or groups.
Categorisation
Definition
a class or division of people or things regarded as having particular shared characteristics
Category
Definition
the combined simplicity and relevance of a categorization scheme or knowledge representation
Cognitive economy
Definition
an abstract idea
Concept
Definition
the knowledge of, or understanding of concepts, principles, theories, models, classifications, etc.
Conceptual knowledge
Definition
an artificial intelligence approach to cognition in which multiple connections between nodes (equivalent to brain cells) form a massive interactive network in which many processes take place simultaneously and certain processes, operating in parallel, are grouped together in hierarchies that bring about results such as thought or action.
Connectionism
Definition
arrangements of several neurons into a network that can be entirely described by an architecture (how the neurons are arranged and connected), a transmission function (how information flows from one neuron to another), and a learning rule (how connection weights change over time)
Connectionist network
Definition
the idea that categories with items that share many properties (i.e. animals) are more difficult to identify that those that share less properties (i.e. artefacts)
Crowding
Definition
explains how things can be put under a specific category if they meet the characteristics of the object, based on its definition
Definitional approach to categorisation
Definition
A voltage whose magnitude is proportional to the difference between an actual and a desired position
Error signal
Definition
a person or thing serving as a typical example or appropriate model
Exemplar
Definition
posits that there are various exemplars, that is, members of a category that serve as representations of the category which an individual utilizes to categorize objects
Exemplar approach to categorisation
Definition
a similarity in the way people look because they are related
Family resemblance
Definition
Higher order categories (i.e. vehicle or furniture)
Global level
Definition
the ability of a computer, machine, electronic system or network to maintain limited functionality even when a large portion of it has been destroyed or rendered inoperative
Graceful degradation
Definition
Layers of a network that receive the input and give an output but we are not sure of why
Hidden units
Definition
a model in which lower levels are sorted under a hierarchy of successively higher-level units
Hierarchical model
Definition
an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity
Hierarchical organisation
Definition
proposes that areas of the brain specialised for different functions are linked to the anterior temporal lobe which integrates the information from these areas
Hub and spoke model
Definition
tasks that require the participant to quickly choose whether a group of letters make up a real word or not
Lexical decision tasks
Definition
a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another
Mirror neurons
Definition
proposes that instead of focusing on only one property or feature to distinguish between objects and animals, people use multiple factors to divide concepts within categories
Multiple-factor approach
Definition
any piece of computer hardware equipment which converts information into human-readable form
Output units
Definition
posits that memory is made up of neural networks that interact to store information
Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Definition
a first or preliminary version of a device or vehicle from which other forms are developed
Prototype
Definition
a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both the verbal and non-verbal domains
Semantic dementia
Definition
views the meaning of concepts as being determined by their relations to other concepts
Semantic network approach
Definition
states that one’s ability to distinguish between inanimate and animate objects is determined by two systems, that is, one that distinguishes between sensory features and another that perceives functions
Sensory-functional (S-F) hypothesis
Definition
an alternative assessment method of reading comprehension that was designed to measure how the reader recalls text-specific information and reader-constructed meaning
Sentence verification technique
Definition
lower level categories (i.e. Samsung Phone)
Specific level
Definition
an analogous model for the association of ideas, memories, and the like, based on the notion that activation of one item stored in memory travels through associated links to activate another item
Spreading activation
Definition
lower level categories (i.e. Samsung Phone)
Subordinate (specific) level
Definition
Higher order categories (i.e. vehicle or furniture)
Superordinate (global) level
Definition
a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Definition
states that individuals respond more quickly to typical examples of a category than they would to examples that are considered atypical
Typicality effect
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953) suggested categories are organised by ________________
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953) suggested categories are organised by “family resemblances”
What is a prototype?
“Typical” member of a category – average representation of the category
Explain this diagram
How Rosch explains the finding that priming resulted in faster “same” judgements for prototypical colors than for nonprototypical colors
What concept explains how we still manage to categorise very untypical members of a category?
Exemplars
Is the prototype or exemplar concept better?
Prototype – better for large categories (e.g., birds)
Examplar – better for smaller categories (e.g. super heroes)
True or False:
We only rely on one of prototypes or exemplars for knowledge
False
Through learning we may transition from relying on prototypes to incorporating exemplar information
Why are basic levels special?
It’s the level we typically associated with the objects identity
Vehicle
Car
Honda CR-V
What theory centres around input and output units, with hidden units joining them?
Connectionism
The weight of a neural connection determines what?
Connection weights determine how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease activity in the next unit
What does the Sensory-functional hypothesis state?
States our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function
What do semantic category proponents argue?
evolution has results in neural circuits that enable us to efficiently recognise and act on these types of categories for survival
According to the Multiple Factor approach what are animals, artifacts and mechanical devices typically associated with?
Animals: colour and motions
Artifacts: action
Mechanical devices: motion and action
How can crowding explain how animals can be more difficult to identify than artifacts?
Animals tend to share many properties making them harder to distinguish than artifacts which share less properties
Which approach includes mirror neurons?
Embodied approach
True or False:
Individual mirror neurons can respond to a range of actions
False
Mirror neurons are specialised to respond to only one type of action
What does semantic dementia cause?
global deficits in knowledge for concepts
True or False:
People with semantic dementia tend to be equally deficient in identifying living things and artifacts
True
What happens when you apply TMS to the anterior tempotal lobe? What about the parietal lobe?
TMS applied to the ATL affects naming of pictures of living things and artifacts
TMS applied to the parietal lobe affects only artifacts
Which part of the brain is considered the “hub” of the Hub and Spoke Model?
Anterior Temporal Lobe
A prototype is a…
Select one:
a. Schema expansion to include new members into existing categories
b. Sensory-functional demonstration of recollection
c. First or preliminary version of something
d. Typical member of a category
A prototype is a…
Select one:
a. Schema expansion to include new members into existing categories
b. Sensory-functional demonstration of recollection
c. First or preliminary version of something
d. Typical member of a category
Semantic dementia, often mistaken for a(n) __________disorder, also affects _________
Semantic dementia, often mistaken for a(n) language disorder, also affects knowledge
People with semantic dementia tend to be equally deficient in identifying living things and artifacts. This is associated with particular degeneration in the:
Select one or more:
Anterior occipital lobe
Anterior temporal lobe
Anterior hippocampal lobe
Anterior frontal lobe
People with semantic dementia tend to be equally deficient in identifying living things and artifacts. This is associated with particular degeneration in the:
Select one or more:
Anterior occipital lobe
Anterior temporal lobe
Anterior hippocampal lobe
Anterior frontal lobe
The exemplar approach is an alternative to prototypes. Prototypes are best for _______________ such as _____________ , whereas exemplars are best for ________________ such as ____________________ .
Options
larger categories
dogs
energy drink brands
smaller categories
The exemplar approach is an alternative to prototypes. Prototypes are best for larger categories such as dogs, whereas exemplars are best for smaller categories such as energy drink brands.
Connectionism is an approach that comprises input and output units, with hidden units joining them. However, not all connections are equally strong. Connection ___________ determine how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease activity in the next unit. This represents __________ __________ between neurons. The strength of connections should be trained via _________.
Connectionism is an approach that comprises input and output units, with hidden units joining them. However, not all connections are equally strong. Connection weights determine how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease activity in the next unit. This represents synaptic activity between neurons. The strength of connections should be trained via experience.
The _____________ hypothesis states that our ability to differentiate living things and artefacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes, and a system that distinguishes function.
The sensory-functional hypothesis states that our ability to differentiate living things and artefacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes, and a system that distinguishes function.
The recognition of fearful faces is an example of the…
Select one:
a. Sensory-functional hypothesis
b. Multiple factor approach
c. Evolutionary survival approach
d. Semantic category approach
The recognition of fearful faces is an example of the…
Select one:
a. Sensory-functional hypothesis
b. Multiple factor approach
c. Evolutionary survival approach
d. Semantic category approach
Hoffman and Ralph studied associations with different types of objects under the multiple factor approach. They found that animals were associated with:
Select one or more:
a. Motion
b. Noise
c. Typical actions
d. Colour
Hoffman and Ralph studied associations with different types of objects under the multiple factor approach. They found that animals were associated with:
Select one or more:
a. Motion
b. Noise
c. Typical actions
d. Colour
Mirror neurons respond to ___________
Mirror neurons respond to one type of action
