Marisa's Missed Development ?'s

Question 1

Question ID #6773: When a mother leaves her 12-month old child with a stranger, the child becomes very upset, yet, ignores her when she returns. What type of attachment pattern does this indicate?
Select one:
A. secure
B. avoidant
C. resistant
D. disoriented

Answer 1

Correct Answer is: C
Babies who have a “resistant” attachment pattern are anxious in the presence of their mother and become more upset when she leaves. They are also ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts at physical contact.
Babies with an “avoidant” attachment pattern may also avoid contact with their mother when she returns, but will show little distress when she leaves. Babies with a “disoriented” pattern alternate between the avoidant and resistant patterns and are apprehensive and confused.
Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Question 2

Question ID #6815: The cognitive outcomes of malnutrition during the final months of prenatal development are severe because:
Select one:
A. malnutrition causes degeneration of existing neurons.
B. malnutrition interferes with the development of new neurons and the connections between neurons.
C. malnutrition reduces the production of certain neurotransmitters.
D. malnutrition leads to the development of deformed, nonfunctional neurons.

Answer 2

Correct Answer is: B
The brain is the last organ to develop, which means that the last few months of prenatal development are most critical. Malnutrition during the final months can lead to irreversible damage due to the fact that it interferes with the development of new neurons and dendrites, which connect the neurons.
Additional Information: Brain Development

Question 3

Question ID #6970: Which theorist focused most strongly on the experiential aspects of learning?
Select one:
A. Vygotsky
B. Piaget 
C. Dewey
D. Gagne

Answer 3

Correct Answer is: C
Dewey’s constructivist theory of learning emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning, proposing learning is the result of experiences and attempts to make sense of those experiences. In other words, each learner individually and socially constructs meaning or knowledge for themselves as he or she learns. Consequently, the focus is on the learner, not on the subject or lesson taught, and no knowledge is independent of the meaning attributed to or constructed by the learner.
Vygotsky described learning as first social, then individual in his sociocultural theory, which is also known as the theory of socially mediated learning. Piaget suggests cognitive development occurs through adaptive and active ways such as assimilation and accommodation. His theory is also referred to as the theory of genetic epistemology. Gagne’s information processing approach to learning emphasizes there are different types or levels of learning and that each requires different types of instruction. Focusing on learning outcomes (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) and the conditions (internal and external) necessary for each type of learning outcome, Gagne identified five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Question 4

Question ID #6779: At the end of the first year:
Select one:
A. children’s babbling begins to narrow to the sounds of their native language.
B. children begin to commit errors of overextension and underextension.
C. children begin to realize that certain sounds can get their parent’s attention and help.
D. children start putting two words together to make a sentence.

Answer 4

Correct Answer is: C
Around one year of age, children attempt to imitate their parents’ language, learn that certain sounds can affect the behavior of others, and utter their first words.
Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development

Question 5

Question ID #6847: Prenatal alcohol exposure is most likely to adversely affect the fetus during the:
Select one:
A. first trimester
B. second trimester
C. third trimester
D. the first or third trimester

Answer 5

Correct Answer is: A
Drinking alcohol anytime during pregnancy can have adverse effects on the fetus. However, alcohol consumption during the first trimester is more likely to cause structural and anatomical defects, characteristic of fetal alcohol syndrome. Consumption during the second and third trimesters is more likely to result in growth restriction and functional impairment. (Health Canada, population and public health branch, Canadian perinatal surveillance system: Alcohol and pregnancy, 1998, retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/brch/factshts/alcprg_e.html).
Additional Information:

Question 6

Question ID #6880: Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focuses on moral reasoning. With regard to the linkage between moral reasoning and moral action, Kohlberg would most likely agree with which of the following?
Select one:
A. There is a direct, one-to-one link between moral reasoning and behavior.
B. The link between moral reasoning and behavior is mediated by the individual’s previous experience with the situation.
C. The link between moral reasoning and behavior is mediated by the individual’s IQ.
D. There isn’t a one-to-one correspondence between moral reasoning and behavior, although, the higher the stage of moral reasoning, the stronger the link is likely to be.

Answer 6

Correct Answer is: D
Kohlberg believed there is a link between moral reasoning and moral action but felt that the correspondence was greatest at the higher stages of moral reasoning.

Question 7

Question ID #6944: A baby uses his/her hand to grab a toy and then squeezes it which produces an interesting sound, and this leads to the baby repeating the action. This is an example of what Piaget described as a:
Select one:
A. primary circular reaction
B. secondary circular reaction
C. tertiary circular reaction Incorrect
D. reflexive circular reaction

Answer 7

Correct Answer is: B
Most of the cognitive development that occurs during the sensorimotor stage, according to Piaget, is the result of circular reactions - wherein a child learns to do something that produces an interesting or pleasurable experience which originally had happened by chance.
Primary circular reactions* center around the baby’s own body and involve simple motor actions like thumb sucking. Secondary circular reactions are actions involving an other person or object and are predominate from 4 to 8 months of age. Tertiary circular reactions* involve seeing what occurs when an original action is varied on an external object. This is predominate from 12 to 18 months of age. Piaget associated reflexes* with cognitive development from birth to 1 month of age (* incorrect options).

Question 8

Question ID #6881: According to Piaget, when a child accommodates new information by forming a new schema or modifying an existing one, this results in
Select one:
A. decentration.
B. equilibration.
C. assimilation. 
D. symbolic representation.

Answer 8

Correct Answer is: B
As defined by Piaget, equilibration is a state of cognitive balance. The need for balance is what motivates the individual to assimilate and accommodate new information.
Additional Information:

Question 9

Question ID #6891: A friend complains to you that his four-year old frequently lies to him even when the child will not be punished or experience other negative consequences for not telling the truth. Based on your familiarity with the literature on deception in children, you
Select one:
A. tell your friend that the child can’t be lying because children are not cognitively capable of doing so until age six or seven.
B. tell your friend that the child must be anticipating negative consequences because, at age four, children lie only in order to avoid punishment.
C. tell your friend that, without any other symptoms, the child’s behavior is probably normal since young children lie for several reasons besides avoiding punishment.
D. tell your friend that the child should be evaluated since lying at such an early age is often a warning sign of pathology.

Answer 9

Correct Answer is: C
Although Piaget and others have argued that young children are cognitively incapable of lying, the research has found that children as young as three lie for various reasons (e.g., to avoid punishment or embarrassment, to obtain rewards).

Question 10

Question ID #6986: Which of the following of Freud's stage is comparable to Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage?
Select one:
A. genital
B. phallic 
C. anal stage
D. oral stage

Answer 10

Correct Answer is: C
Freud’s anal stage of psychosexual development and Erikson’s autonomy versus shame and doubt stage occur between the ages of one and three.
Freud’s oral stage occurs from birth to one year, the phallic stage from three to six years and the genital stage is associated with adolescence.

Question 11

Question ID #6813: According to both Kohlberg’s and Piaget’s theory of moral development, which of the following statements is not true?
Select one:
A. Moral development is rooted in cognitive development.
B. Appropriate peer interaction promotes moral development.
C. Moral development occurs in an invariant sequence of stages.
D. There may be differences across cultures in the development of moral reasoning, especially in the early stages.

Answer 11

Correct Answer is: D
Although Kohlberg is probably better known as a theorist of moral development than Piaget, the latter had his own theory, which basically stressed that as children grow, they move from viewing rules as fixed dictates of authority to flexible instruments of human purposes that can be changed. The point of view of Kohlberg, Piaget, and other theorists with similar ideas is sometimes termed the cognitive-developmental point of view because, from the perspective of these theories, development in a number of areas is mainly a function of cognitive development.
Both Kohlberg and Piaget believed that moral development occurs in an invariant sequence and is related to both cognitive development and peer interaction. However, neither Piaget nor Kohlberg believed that there are cultural differences in the early stages of moral development, though Kohlberg has noted that the nature and rate of moral development at its higher levels does differ across cultures.
Additional Information:

Question 12

Question ID #6859: Vygotsky's work has most influenced which of the following teaching strategies?
Select one:
A. computer-adaptive testing
B. reciprocal teaching
C. Montessori method
D. cognitive constructivism

Answer 12

Correct Answer is: B
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development emphasized the role of social and cultural factors. He believed that learning occurs best through social interaction. His approach has influenced a teaching method known as “reciprocal teaching” in which the teacher and students take turns leading a dialogue. This approach encourages students to stretch beyond the role of simply answering questions.
Computer-adaptive testing refers to a computer-administered exam which adapts the level of difficulty of subsequent test items based on the examinee’s performance on previous items. The Montessori method emphasizes “hands-on” learning and has been criticized for lacking enough cooperative learning and small-group opportunities. Cognitive constructivism is based on Piaget’s work which proposed that humans construct knowledge through their experiences with the world. Vygotsky’s approach is similar to Piaget’s, but because of his emphasis on the social context of learning, Vygotsky’s theory is classified as social constructivism.

Question 13

Question ID #6859: Vygotsky's work has most influenced which of the following teaching strategies?
Select one:
A. computer-adaptive testing
B. reciprocal teaching
C. Montessori method
D. cognitive constructivism

Answer 13

Correct Answer is: B
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development emphasized the role of social and cultural factors. He believed that learning occurs best through social interaction. His approach has influenced a teaching method known as “reciprocal teaching” in which the teacher and students take turns leading a dialogue. This approach encourages students to stretch beyond the role of simply answering questions.
Computer-adaptive testing refers to a computer-administered exam which adapts the level of difficulty of subsequent test items based on the examinee’s performance on previous items. The Montessori method emphasizes “hands-on” learning and has been criticized for lacking enough cooperative learning and small-group opportunities. Cognitive constructivism is based on Piaget’s work which proposed that humans construct knowledge through their experiences with the world. Vygotsky’s approach is similar to Piaget’s, but because of his emphasis on the social context of learning, Vygotsky’s theory is classified as social constructivism.

Question 14

Question ID #6800: The parents of two children, Jimmy, 4, and Janie, 11, divorce without exposing their children to overt conflict. Based on the results on research investigating the effects of divorce on children, you would expect that:
Select one:
A. Janie will experience more negative effects than Jimmy initially, but Jimmy will experience a more negative delayed reaction.
B. Janie will experience more negative effects initially as well as a more negative delayed reaction.
C. Jimmy will experience more negative effects initially as well as a more negative delayed reaction.
D. Jimmy will experience more negative effects than Janie initially, but Janie will experience a more negative delayed reaction.

Answer 14

Correct Answer is: D
Research by experts in this field, such as Wallerstein, has revealed that developmental level is an important mediator of the effects of parental divorce on children. Apparently, older children are better able to understand what is happening during a divorce than younger children. As a result, they exhibit fewer negative effects at the time of the divorce itself. However, they often display delayed negative effects, such as painful memories and fears that they will have an unsuccessful marriage.

Question 15

Question ID #6943: Anger management training for children has been criticized for:
Select one:
A. limited positive effects due to focusing on the individual
B. limited positive effects due to focusing on the behavior
C. being developmentally inappropriate due to children’s tendency to blame anger on others
D. being developmentally inappropriate due to children’s inability to control feelings and behaviors

Answer 15

Correct Answer is: A
One criticism of anger management training for children has been that most programs, which utilize a cognitive-behavioral approach, place the emphasis on the individual’s perceptions, feelings and behaviors while ignoring the interpersonal or systemic factors. Research indicates that training program effectiveness is increased by expanding beyond the individual to include family, peer and community relationships. (See: Morley, E. & Rossman, S.B. (1997). Helping At-Risk Youth: Lessons From Community-Based Initiatives, Washington D.C., The Urban Institute.)

Question 16

Question ID #6860: Children generally begin to recognize racial differences based on physical traits between:
Select one:
A. 1 and 2 years
B. 3 and 4 years
C. 5 and 9 years
D. 7 and 12 years

Answer 16

Correct Answer is: B
Children’s ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) has been evaluated and described in several stages. In the first stage, which develops between 3 and 4 years, children first begin to describe ethnicity in terms of physical traits (e.g., skin color, clothes, physical features). In the next stage, which occurs between 5 and 9 years, they become able to accurately apply ethnic labels to themselves and others and they rely on other objective cues such as language and food preference, as well as physical appearance in ethnic labeling. In the next stage, from 7-12 years, children express a social perspective of ethnicity, including prejudice. And between 10 and 15 years, they begin to immerse themselves into their ethnic group (S.M. Quintana, V.C. Ybarra, P. Gonzalez-Doupe, & Y. DeBaessa, Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Ethnic Perspective-Taking Ability: An Exploratory Investigation With U.S. Latino and Guatemalan Ladino Children. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2000, 6 (4), 334-351).

Question 17

Question ID #6978: Differences between boys and girls in social interaction style
Select one:
A. are not significant.
B. do not emerge until about the age of 10.
C. are most apparent in cross-gender interactions.
D. are most apparent in same gender interactions.

Answer 17

Correct Answer is: D
Research has shown that two general differences exist between the genders in interaction style among children: boys are more active and aggressive in their play than girls, and girls are more vocal and nurturant in their play than boys. These differences begin to emerge at about the age of three years old. Boys’ social behavior is more likely to include physical and verbal aggression, insults, and teasing, whereas the behavior of girls is more likely to involve grooming, offering compliments to peers, and other signs of nurturance. Additionally, girls are more likely to spend time indoors and interact in smaller groups than boys. These differences are most apparent in same gender interactions, primarily because, until they are teenagers, boys and girls tend to play in same gender pairs and groups.

Question 18

Question ID #6967: According to Speech Act Theory, the general act of saying something is referred to as a/an:
Select one:
A. locutionary act
B. perlocutionary act
C. illocutionary act
D. propositional act

Answer 18

Correct Answer is: A
Speech-act theory, originated by Austin (1962) then further developed by Searle (1969), proposes by understanding the detail of what is being said or uttered, people will understand and communicate better with others. Specifically, a verbal utterance is defined in terms of its content, the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the listener. A locutionary act is an utterance of a meaningful sentence or statement, the act of saying something.
An illocutionary act* intends to communicate. It is the way in which something is said. A perlocutionary act* seeks to change behavior. It is the effect of what was said on the listener or speech acts that have an effect on the feelings, thoughts or actions of either the speaker or the listener. A propositional act* is something referenced, but no communication may be intended (* incorrect options). According to the theory, a speech act necessarily involves a locutionary act but may or may not involve an illocutionary act and a perlocutionary act. (See: Austin, J. L. (1962), How to do Things with Words. Oxford. Searle, J. R. (1969), Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge.)

Question 19

uestion ID #6892: Severe maternal malnutrition during the third trimester is correlated with a number of intellectual, social, and motor deficits in children. Which of the following statements regarding the physiological correlates of these deficits is most true?
Select one:
A. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is most likely to result in incomplete development of the autonomic nervous system.
B. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester seems to have its most severe negative impact on the developing brain.
C. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is most likely to cause physical disabilities that prevent the child from developing at a normal rate.
D. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is not likely to have a significant physiological effect on the developing fetus; observed deficits in these children are probably due to social and environmental causes.

Answer 19

Correct Answer is: B
Severe prenatal malnutrition is likely to have differential effects, depending on when in pregnancy it occurs. In the first trimester, it can result in congenital malformations and spontaneous abortion. In the third trimester (as well as in the first 3-6 months after birth), it is most likely to have a negative effect on the central nervous system – specifically, the brain. Studies have suggested that these children often have an abnormally low number of brain cells and brain weight. The specific behavioral consequences may include apathy, unresponsiveness to environmental stimulation, irritability, an abnormally high-pitched cry, intellectual deficits, and lags in motor development.

Question 20

Question ID #6785: Older adults are likely to have more problems than young adults on tasks involving which type of memory?
Select one:
A. remote 
B. primary
C. explicit
D. semantic

Answer 20

Correct Answer is: C
The literature on aging and memory is confusing because different authors focus on different aspects of memory (recent versus remote, implicit versus explicit, etc.), and few make direct comparisons between the different aspects. Of the types of memory listed, though, problems in explicit (deliberate) memory have most consistently been linked to advancing age. In contrast, remote long-term memory, primary (short-term) memory, and semantic memory are not strongly affected by normal aging.

Question 21

Question ID #6820: A one-year-old has no vocabulary but can understand what you are saying. The parent should:
Select one:
A. Do nothing; this reflects normal development
B. Consult with a speech pathologist
C. Refer to a pediatrician
D. Screen for the possibility of autism

Answer 21

Correct Answer is: A
These parents should relax. Undoubtedly this is their first child. First words typically occur anywhere from 10 to 16 months of age. From 18 months children begin to create “language” several words that represent a complete thought (Mike Tomasello 1992, First Verbs: A Case Study of Early Grammatical Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Question 22

Question ID #6851: A child is left alone in a classroom and sees a small toy that he would really like to have. The child doesn't take the toy because he doesn't want his teacher to think he's "bad." According to Kohlberg, this child is in which stage of moral development?
Select one:
A. conventional
B. preconventional 
C. heteronomous
D. autonomous

Answer 22

Correct Answer is: A
Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional), and each of these levels is further divided into two stages. The child described in this question is in the first stage of the conventional level, which is sometimes called the “good boy/good girl” stage.

Question 23

Question ID #6771: In the Adult Attachment Interview a 30-year old woman reports having had a very good childhood, yet, when asked, fails to provide any specific examples of what made it very good. When she is reunited with her 14-month-old child, who was placed in a strange situation, the child will most likely show which of the following behaviors?
Select one:
A. he’ll ignore his mother
B. he’ll be ambivalent towards his mother
C. he’ll run to her and hug her
D. he’ll appear dazed and confused

Answer 23

Correct Answer is: A
Through the intergenerational transmission process, parents’ attachment patterns tend to create similar patterns in their children. The mother in this question appears to have what’s known as a dismissing pattern of attachment. People with this pattern tend to devalue attachment relationships, and although they speak positively of their parents, when asked, they fail to provide specific examples to support their evaluations. Three-fourths of their children have an avoidant attachment pattern.
he’ll be ambivalent towards his mother

This choice is characteristic of the resistant child – most often resulting from a preoccupied parent

he’ll run to her and hug her

This is seen in the secure child – who typically has a secure parent.

he’ll appear dazed and confused

This is characteristic of a child with a disoriented attachment – which tends to develop from a parent with an unresolved attachment pattern.

Question 24

Question ID #6955: Cameron has changed his major at college three times although believes he has finally found the right major after thoroughly reviewing his skills and interests. Which of Marcia's identity statuses is Cameron most likely in?
Select one:
A. foreclosure
B. moratorium 
C. achievement
D. diffusion

Answer 24

Correct Answer is: C
Crisis and commitment are the core variables in Marcia’s four identity status model. Identity diffusion* describes young people who have not undergone an identity crisis nor have committed to an identity. Identity foreclosure* is characterized by a commitment to an identity (e.g., career) that is not the result of an identity crisis, but rather, the suggestions of a parent or significant other. In moratorium, the individual is confused, in a state of crisis, has made no commitment and is actively exploring different options ( incorrect options).
Identity achievement signifies that the adolescent has surmounted the crisis and made a commitment.

Question 25

Question ID #7003: According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, a child who is able to generate multiple theories as to why something occurred and then arrive at one theory based on the evidence at hand is displaying
Select one:
A. formal operational thought.
B. preoperational thought.
C. decentration.
D. concrete operational thought

Answer 25

Correct Answer is: A
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four developmental stages, roughly correlated with specific age ranges. As children progress through these stages, their methods of assimilating new information, accommodating existing cognitive structures to new information, and mentally representing information in general become more sophisticated. The fourth and final stage, formal operational thought, begins at about the age of 12, though not everyone fully completes this stage. It involves the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from available information. One characteristic of formal operational thought is hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which involves the ability to generate multiple theories for a phenomenon and choose one theory over others based on reasoning and evidence.

Question 26

Question ID #6990: Problem adolescent drug use is associated most with:
Select one:
A. early experimentation with drugs
B. alienation
C. peer pressure 
D. lack of information/education

Answer 26

Correct Answer is: B
Longitudinal studies indicate problem drug users, as young as 7 years old, exhibit a consistent pattern of alienation, impulsivity, and subjective distress, which often precedes drug use onset.
Early experimentation with drugs is a predictor of problem drug use only in the presence of the syndrome described above and while peer pressure does underlie experimentation, it does not appear to be associated with problem drug use among adolescents. Lack of information is also not a significant contributor to problem drug use.

Question 27

Question ID #6933: Self-conscious emotions like pride, shame or embarrassment begin to be exhibited by children between the ages of:
Select one:
A. 3-9 months
B. 6-12 months
C. 18-24 months
D. 30-36 months

Answer 27

Correct Answer is: C
Between 18 and 24 months, the sense of self emerges and children begin expressing self-conscious emotions. The emergence of self-conscious emotions is a predictable milestone in the sequence of stages during emotional development. (See: L. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 2004.)

Question 28

Question ID #6874: According to Piaget, a child in the autonomous stage of development believes that
Select one:
A. rules are absolute
B. rules are useless
C. rules are arbitrary and alterable
D. punishment should be based on the damage caused by a behavior

Answer 28

Correct Answer is: C
Piaget distinguished two stages of moral development: heteronomous and autonomous. Heteronomous morality is characteristic of children 4-7 years old. The heteronomous child views rules as “absolute” and unchangeable and believes that punishment should fit the consequences of the behavior, regardless of the intentions of the actor (“punishment should be based on the damage caused by a behavior”). By age 7 or 8 children begin to exhibit autonomous morality, in which they realize that rules are determined, and agreed to, by individuals and are, therefore, alterable. They also consider the intention of the actor to be most important in determining punishment.

Question 29

Question ID #6969: Observations of infants' reactions to pictures, mirror reflections, and movies of themselves have been used to assess self-recognition, which involves simple body and facial discrimination. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) found that infants respond to their reflections either by pointing to the mirror or by touching their faces as early as:
Select one:
A. 6-9 months 
B. 9-12 months
C. 12-15 months
D. 15-18 months

Answer 29

Correct Answer is: D
Self-recognition can be seen when a child develops the ability to recognize and distinguish the self in relation to the outside world through everyday interactions with the physical and social environment. The development of self-recognition has been studied mainly by examining infants’ responses to their reflections in mirrors. The definitive test is whether or not the infant is capable of using the reflection to notice and respond to a mark on the face or head by touching the mark. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) found that infants respond to their reflections either by pointing to the mirror or by touching their faces as early as 15 months of age. Research indicates this response appears in some infants around 15 months of age and by a majority of infants by 24 months of age. (See: Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum Press.)

Question 30

Question ID #6908: There is some evidence that children of divorced parents have more academic problems than children from intact families and that
Select one:
A. girls of divorced families exhibit poorer academic performance than boys of divorced families.
B. boys of divorced families exhibit poorer academic performance than girls of divorced families.
C. the negative effects of divorce on academic performance are not moderated by gender. Incorrect
D. the negative effects of divorce on academic performance are observed in younger (but not older) children.

Answer 30

Correct Answer is: B
The studies have consistently shown that children of divorce do more poorly in school than children of intact families. In addition, these negative effects tend to be more pronounced for boys than for girls and for children who are older at the time of the divorce.

Question 31

Question ID #6846: A child who is not putting together two-word phrases, by which of the following ages, should be taken in for an evaluation?
Select one:
A. 12 months
B. 18 months
C. 24 months
D. 30 months

Answer 31

Correct Answer is: D
The use of two-word sentences, called telegraphic speech, normally appears between the age of 1-2 years. It would rarely be absent by the age of 30 months; if it is, a developmental evaluation is justified.

Question 32

Question ID #6972: Of Kramer's stages of cognitive development in adulthood, which would most likely be improved by an undergraduate university education?
Select one:
A. absolutist reasoning 
B. dialectical reasoning
C. inductive reasoning
D. relativist reasoning

Answer 32

Correct Answer is: D
Kramer (1983) describes three stages or characteristics of adult cognitive development: an understanding of the relativistic nature of knowledge (relativist reasoning); an acceptance of contradiction as a part of reality; and an integrative approach to thinking. According to Kramer, the stage of relativist reasoning includes an awareness of alternative perspectives on issues and the importance of context when finding answers to questions and thus most likely to be facilitated by undergraduate learning and experiences.
Kramer indicates adolescents tend to enter university with absolutist, or idealistic, reasoning abilities and typically most people do not develop dialectical reasoning abilities until late adulthood. Dialectial reasoning involves the recognition of contradiction, then moving on to the reconciliation of basic elements of the opposing perspectives. Postformal reasoning and inductive reasoning are not stages in Kramer’s theory of cognitive development in early adulthood. (See: Kramer, D.A., (1983) Post-Formal Operations? A Need for Further Conceptualization. Human Development, 26:2, 91-105. And: Kramer, D., & Woodruff, D. S. (1986). Relativistic and dialectical thought in three adult age-groups. Human Development, 29: 280-290.)