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BIOL1030 > Lecture 9 > Flashcards

Lecture 9 Flashcards

1
Q

what is sexual reproduction?

A

-the creation of an offspring by the fusion of a male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote

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2
Q

what is asexual reproduction?

A

-the creation of offspring without the fusion of a male and female gamete
-one parent clones offspring

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3
Q

what is the male gamete?

A

-sperm

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4
Q

what is the female gamete?

A

-egg

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5
Q

by what type of reproduction do most invertebrates reproduce?

A

-asexual
-typically by fission

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6
Q

what is fission?

A

-the separation of a parent into 2 or more individuals of similar size

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7
Q

what are 4 main methods of asexual reproduction?

A

-binary fission
-budding
-fragmentation
-parthenogenesis

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8
Q

what is binary fission?

A

-seperation of the parent cell into 2 new daughter cells

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9
Q

what is budding?

A

-new individuals arising from outgrowths of existing individuals

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10
Q

what is fragmentation?

A

-breaking of the body into pieces
-some or all will develop into adults
-must be accompanied by regeneration (regrowth of lost body parts)

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11
Q

what is parthenogenesis?

A

-the development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg
-mainly in invertebrates
-rarely in vertebrates

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12
Q

what is the two fold cost of sexual reproduction?

A

-sexual females will have half as many daughters as asexual females

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13
Q

do almost all eukaryotic species reproduce sexually?

A

-YES

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14
Q

what does sexual reproduction result in?

A

-genetic recombination

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15
Q

what are the potential advantages of genetic recombination?

A

-increase in variation (increase in reproductive success of parents in changing environments)
-increase in the rate of adaptation
-shuffling of genes (possible elimination of harmful genes from a population)

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16
Q

what type of reproduction is expected to be the most advantageous in a stable environment? what about a variable environment?

A

-stable = asexual reproductive (less genetic variation)
-variable = sexual reproduction (more genetic variation)

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17
Q

what is ovulation?

A

-the release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle

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18
Q

what do most animals reproductive cycles relate to?

A

-the changing seasons

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19
Q

what controls reproductive cycles?

A

-hormones
-environmental cues

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20
Q

do animals solely sexually reproduce or asexually reproduce?

A

-NO
-they may alternate the methods

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21
Q

what is a solution for organisms that may struggle to encounter mates? what is an example of an organism that has this solution?

A

-hermaphroditism
-earthworms

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22
Q

what is hermaphroditism?

A

-an individual has both male and female reproductive systems
-can produce both gametes
-some of these organisms can self-fertilize

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23
Q

what is the term for self fertilization?

A

-autogamy

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24
Q

what are sex reversals?

A

-some species will undergo sex reversals
-male to female reversal (certain oysters)
-female to male reversal (coral reef fish)

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25
Q

what is external fertilization?

A

-the eggs are shed by a female and fertilized by sperm in the external environment
-need a moist environment

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26
Q

what plays an important part in sexual reproduction?

A

-mechanisms of fertilization
-union of egg and sperm

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27
Q

what is internal fertilization?

A

-sperm are deposited near the female reproductive tract
-fertilization occurs within the tract

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28
Q

what does internal fertilization require?

A

-behavioural interactions
-compatible sexual organs

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29
Q

what is required by all types of fertilization?

A

-critical timing
-mediated by environmental cues, pheromones, courtship behaviour

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30
Q

do species with external fertilization or internal fertilization produce more gametes?

A

-species with external fertilization

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31
Q

what is true for all species no matter the type of fertilization they perform?

A

-produce more offspring than their immediate environment can handle
-proportion that survives is small

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32
Q

what can species with internal fertilization provide?

A

-greater protection of embryos
-more parental care

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33
Q

what do the embryos of some terrestrial animals develop in?

A

-amniote eggs
-calcium + protein containing shells
-several internal membranes

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34
Q

what helps to ensure the survival of offspring?

A

-parental care

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35
Q

what are gonads?

A

-organs that produce gametes

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36
Q

what do simple systems have instead of gonads?

A

-formation of gametes from undifferentiated tissue

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37
Q

what will more complex systems have in addition to gonads? what is their role?

A

-sets of accessory tubes and glands
-to carry, protect, and nourish gametes + developing embryos

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38
Q

what is copulation?

A

-sexual intercourse

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39
Q

what is an extra part of an insects female reproductive system?

A

-spermathecae
-stores sperm during copulation

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40
Q

what does the reproductive tract of a vertebrate release?

A

-sperm, ova, and offspring

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41
Q

what is the cloaca in nonmammalian vertebrates?

A

-common opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems

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42
Q

how many ovaries are in the vertebrates female reproductive system?

A

-typically 2
-in some species one of the ovaries never develops

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43
Q

how many uterus’ do mammals such as marsupials have?

A

-2 separate uteri

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44
Q

where do differences in male reproductive systems mainly exist?

A

-the copulatory organs

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45
Q

what type of mating is relatively rare among animals? what have some species done to decrease this?

A

-monogamy
-have evolved mechanisms

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46
Q

what are the males external reproductive organs?

A

-scrotum
-penis

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47
Q

what are the males internal reproductive organs?

A

-the gonads
-accessory glands
-ducts

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48
Q

what is the role of the gonads in the male reproductive system?

A

-to produce sperm and hormones

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49
Q

what is the role of the accessory glands in the male reproductive system?

A

-secrete products needed for sperm movement

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50
Q

what is the role of ducts in the male reproductive system?

A

-carry sperm and glandular secretions

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51
Q

what do the testes consist of?

A

-highly coiled tubules surrounded by connective tissue

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52
Q

what are the highly coiled tubules in the testes?

A

-seminiferous tubules

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53
Q

why are the testes typically held outside of the abdominal cavity? where are the testes usually?

A

-production of sperm cannot occur at normal body temp
-testes are usually in the scrotum because the temperature will be lower

54
Q

after the sperm pass through the seminiferous tubules where do they go?

A

-coiled tubules of the epididymis

55
Q

what is the pathway of sperm during ejactulation?

A

-propelled through the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct
-exit the penis through the urethra

56
Q

what is semen composed of?

A

-sperm
-secretions from 3 accessory glands

57
Q

what accessory gland contributes most of the volume of semen?

A

-the 2 seminal vesicles

58
Q

how does the prostate gland secrete its products?

A

-directly into the urethra through several small ducts

59
Q

what do the bulbourethral glands secrete?

A

-clear mucus before ejactulation

60
Q

what is the purpose of the clear mucus secreted from the bulbourethral glands?

A

-neutralize acidic urine that remains in the urethra

61
Q

what is the human penis composed of?

A

-3 cylinders of spongy erectile tissue

62
Q

what happens to the erectile tissue during sexual arousal?

A

-fills with blood from arteries
-causes an erection

63
Q

what can be said about the head/glans of the penis?

A

-thinner skin than the shaft
-more sensitive to stimulation
-surrounded by a fold of skin called the prepuce/foreskin

64
Q

what are the external reproductive structures of the female reproductive system?

A

-clitoris
-2 sets of labia

65
Q

what are the internal organs of the female reproductive system?

A

-pair of gonads
-a system to ducts and chambers

66
Q

what is the purpose of the ducts and chambers within the female reproductive system?

A

-carry gametes
-house the embryo + fetus

67
Q

what are the female gonads?

A

-the ovaries?

68
Q

where do the ovaries lie?

A

-in the abdominal cavity

69
Q

what does each ovary contain?

A

-many follicles
-follicles consist of a partially developed egg surrounded by supporting cells

70
Q

what is the name for a partially developed egg?

A

-oocyte

71
Q

how does the egg travel from the ovary to the uterus?

A

-via an oviduct or fallopian tube
-cilia in the oviduct help move the egg

72
Q

what is the uterine lining? what does it contain?

A

-endometrium
-contains many blood vessels

73
Q

what happens to the uterus as it is closer to the external environment?

A

-narrows at the opening called the cervix
-opens into the vagina

74
Q

what is the vagina?

A

-a muscular but elastic chamber
-is the repository (storing place) for sperm during copulation
-serves as the birth canal

75
Q

where does the vagina open to the outside?

A

-the vulva

76
Q

what does the vulva consist of?

A

-labia majora
-labia minora
-hymen
-clitoris

77
Q

what parts of the internal/external female reproductive system are rich with blood vessels?

A

-vagina
-labia minora
-clitoris

78
Q

what can be said about the clitoris?

A

-has many nerve endings (high sensitivity)
-has a head/glans covered by the prepuce (small hood of skin)

79
Q

what is important to mammalian reproduction but are not apart of the female reproductive system?

A

-mammary glands

80
Q

what within the mammary glands secretes milk?

A

-small sacs of epithelial tissue

81
Q

when will a human embryo begin to show distinctive features?

A

-7 weeks after conception

82
Q

will embryos of different species have common features during early stages?

A

-YES
-share basic mechanisms of development
-common set of regulatory genes

83
Q

what do biologists use to study development?

A

-model organisms

84
Q

what initiates embryonic development?

A

-fertilization
-cleavage

85
Q

what is fertilization?

A

-formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg and sperm

86
Q

what 2 things play a crucial role in the steps of fertilization?

A

-molecules
-events at the eggs surface

87
Q

what are the 2 basic steps of fertilization?

A

-sperm penetrates the protective layer around the egg
-receptors on the egg surface bind to molecules on the sperm surface

88
Q

what do the changes at the eggs surface prevent?

A

-polyspermy

89
Q

what reactions are triggered when the sperm meets the egg?

A

-the acrosomal reaction
-the cortical reaction

89
Q

what is polyspermy?

A

-the entry of multiple sperm nuclei into the egg

90
Q

what is the acrosomal reaction?

A

-the acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes that digest the material around the egg

91
Q

what does gamete contact/fusion do to the eggs cell membrane?

A

-depolarizes it
-sets up a fast block to polyspermy

92
Q

what is required for the cortical reaction? what triggers the cortical reaction?

A

-high concentration of calcium within the egg
-a change in the calcium concentration + sperm binding to a receptor in the zona pellucida

93
Q

how is the fertilization envelope formed?

A

-vesicles beneath the eggs plasma membrane release their contents (calcium)
-calcium contributes to the appearance

94
Q

what does the rise of calcium in the cytosol of the egg increase?

A

-rates of cellular respiration
-protein synthesis done by the egg

95
Q

when does cell division being within the egg?

A

-when the sperm nucleus merges with the egg nucleus

96
Q

do the proteins and mRNAs needed for activation need to be synthesized within the egg?

A

-NO
-they are already present within the egg

97
Q

what is the cortical reactions purpose?

A

-the slow block to polyspermy

98
Q

what is the zona pellucida? how must the sperm get there?

A

-the extracellular matrix of the egg
-travel through a layer of follicle cells

99
Q

what is the acrosomal reactions purpose?

A

-fast block to polyspermy

100
Q

when does the diploid nucleus form in mammals?

A

-after the first division of the zygote

101
Q

when does the first cell division occur in mammals?

A

-12-36 hours after sperm binding

102
Q

what is cleavage?

A

-a period of rapid cell division without growth
-follows fertilization

103
Q

what are the cleavage cells called?

A

-blastomeres

104
Q

what is the blastula?

A

-ball of cells with a fluid filled cavity
-in most mammals, human equivalent is a blastocyst

105
Q

what is the fluid filled cavity of the blastula called?

A

-blastocoel

106
Q

what are the cleavage patterns of frogs and other land animals? why?

A

-asymmetric
-the distribution of yolk (stored nutrients)

107
Q

what are the two poles during cleavage a lot of mammals? what distinguishes them?

A

-vegetal pole (more yolk)
-animal pole (less yolk)

108
Q

how is the rate of cell division after cleavage?

A

-rate slows down
-normal cell cycle is restored

109
Q

what is morphogenesis?

A

-the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations
-gastrulation + organogenesis involved

110
Q

what is gastrulation?

A

-movement of cells from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo creating a 3 layered embryo called a gastrula
-gut formation

111
Q

what is organogenesis?

A

-formation of organs

112
Q

do humans have much egg yolk?

A

-NO

113
Q

what is the inner cell mass in humans?

A

-cluster of cells at one end of the blastocyst

114
Q

what is the trophoblast?

A

-outer epithelial layer of the blastocyst
-does not contribute to the embryo
-initiates implantation

115
Q

what happens to the trophoblast after implantation?

A

-continues to expand
-forms a set of extraembryonic membranes

116
Q

what is the purpose of the extraembryonic membranes formed from the trophoblast?

A

-enclose specialized structures outside of the embryo

117
Q

what does gastrulation in humans involve?

A

-inward movement from the epiblast

118
Q

how was the colonization of land by vertebrates made possible?

A

-evolution of shelled bird and reptile eggs as well as egg laying mammals (monotremes)
-evolution of the uterus in marsupials + eutherian animals

119
Q

what is the embryo surrounded by no matter the adaptations?

A

-a fluid sac called the amnion

120
Q

what is the role of the amnion in animals who lay their eggs on land?

A

-protects the embryo from desiccation
-allows for reproduction on dry land
-why these animals are called amniotes

121
Q

what are the four extraembryonic membranes and their functions?

A

-chorion (gas exchange)
-amnion (encloses amniotic fluid)
-yolk sac (encloses the yolk)
-allantois (disposes of waste products + gas exchange)

122
Q

what occurs during organogenesis?

A

-various regions of the germ layers develop into rudimentary organs

123
Q

what is specific to early vertebrate organogenesis?

A

-notochord forms from the dorsal mesoderm
-signalling molecules secreted by the notochord and other mesodermal cells induce the neural plate to form

124
Q

what is the neural plate formed from?

A

-ectoderm

125
Q

what does the neural plate eventually form?

A

-forms the neural tube by curving inwards

126
Q

what does the neural tube become?

A

-the central nervous system

127
Q

even though the notochord disappears before birth, how is it still important/present?

A

-contributes to parts of the discs between vertebrae

128
Q

what causes cell shape changes? what is an example?

A

-movement of parts within a cell
-microtubules + microfilaments of the cytoskeleton contribute heavily
-ex: neurulation, microtubules oriented from dorsal to ventral in a sheet of ectodermal cells help lengthen cells along that axis

129
Q

what is apoptosis?

A

-programmed cell death
-individual cells, sets of cell, or whole tissues stop developing and become engulfed by neighbouring cells

130
Q

what is an example of where apoptosis is used in early development?

A

-more neurons are produced than needed in developing embryos
-extra neurons are removed by apoptosis

131
Q

what is an example of where apoptosis is used during metamorphosis?

A

-a structure functions in early stages + not later ones
-the tail of a tadpole undergoes apoptosis

BIOL1030 (11 decks)

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