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BIOL1030 > Lecture 7 > Flashcards

Lecture 7 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 3 processes of animal nutrition?

A

-ingestion
-digestion
-absorption

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2
Q

what are the 3 main types of feeding strategies?

A

-herbivores
-carnivores
-omnivores

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3
Q

what are herbivores?

A

-animals that eat mainly autotrophs (plants + algae)

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4
Q

what are carnivores?

A

-animals that eat other animals

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5
Q

what are omnivores?

A

-animals that regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae

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6
Q

what is another type of feeder? what do they feed on?

A

-opportunistic feeder
-eat foods outside their standard diet when not available

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7
Q

what is an unavoidable supplement in an animals diet?

A

-microorganisms

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8
Q

what does an animals diet provide? what happens to this and what is it used for?

A

-provides chemical energy that is converted to ATP
-powers body processes

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9
Q

what must animals have a source of in order to construct organic molecules?

A

-organic carbon
-organic nitrogen

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10
Q

what is required by animals cells?

A

-essential nutrients

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11
Q

what are essential nutrients? where are they obtained?

A

-molecules that an animal cannot produce
-must be obtained from dietary sources

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12
Q

what are the 4 classes of essential nutrients?

A

-essential amino acids
-essential fatty acids
-vitamins
-minerals

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13
Q

how many amino acids do animals require? how many can they synthesize from molecules in their diet?

A

-require 20
-can synthesize about half

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14
Q

how do animals synthesize some amino acids?

A

-using enzymes
-also need sulphur and organic nitrogen from their diet

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15
Q

what is malnutrition?

A

-protein deficiency
-a diet that provides insufficient essential amino acids

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16
Q

what will provide all essential amino acids? what type of proteins are these?

A

-meat, eggs, and cheese
-complete proteins

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17
Q

how do herbivores recieve their essential amino acids? what type of proteins are these?

A

-specific plant protein combinations
-incomplete proteins

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18
Q

can animals synthesize any fatty acids on their own? what are the ones they cannot synthesize? why can’t they?

A

-YES, can synthesize most of them
-cannot synthesize certain unsaturated fatty acids
-cannot make the specific double bonds for them

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19
Q

are the non-essential fatty acids as important as the essential ones?

A

-YES
-used to build cells

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20
Q

is it possible to have deficiencies in fatty acids?

A

-yes but it is rare

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21
Q

what are vitamins? what are their features?

A

-organic molecules required in the diet in small amounts
-have diverse functions
-many function as coenzymes

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22
Q

what are coenzymes? what vitamins typically function as them?

A

-required by enzymes for the catalysis of a chemical reaction
-B vitamins

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23
Q

how many vitamins are essential to humans?

A

-13

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24
Q

what are the 2 categories of vitamins?

A

-fat soluble
-water soluble

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25
Q

what category of vitamins can be toxic in excess?

A

-fat soluble

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26
Q

what vitamin varies in its need? why does it vary?

A

-vitamin D
-can be synthesized

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27
Q

what are minerals? what are their features?

A

-simple inorganic nutrients
-typically required in small amounts, but depends on the organism
-excess can affect homeostasis
-variety of functions
-function as an enzymes cofactors (nonprotein helper molecules)

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28
Q

what is undernourishment?

A

-the result of a diet that consistently supplies less chemical energy than the body requires

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29
Q

what will an undernourished individuals body do?

A

-use up stored fat and carbohydrates
-break down its own proteins
-lose muscle mass
-suffer protein deficiency of the brain
-die or suffer irreversible damage

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30
Q

what is malnourishment?

A

-the long term absence of one or more essential nutrients from the diet

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31
Q

what can malnourishment cause? how can it be corrected?

A

-cause deformities, disease, and death
-can be corrected by dietary changes

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32
Q

what is epidemiology?

A

-the study of human health and disease in populations
-gives insights into human nutrition

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33
Q

what has been found to stem from a deficiency of folic acid in pregnant mothers?

A

-neural tube defects

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34
Q

how do digestive systems of vertebrates differ among eachother?

A

-have variations based on a common plan (variations often are related to diet)
-dentition (their assortment of teeth)
-stomach + intestinal adaptations

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35
Q

what type of variation is an animals dentition?

A

-structural variation reflected on their diet

36
Q

what are examples of animals variations in dentition?

A

-mammals have varying specialized dentition adapted to their usual diet
-poisonous snakes teeth are modified to fangs for injecting venom and they can unhinge their jaws to swallow prey whole

37
Q

how are vertebrates digestive system length and diet correlated?

A

-herbivores + omnivores have longer alimentary canals b/c vegetation takes longer to digest

38
Q

why does vegetation take longer to digest?

A

-cell walls are present (takes more time and energy to break)

39
Q

how are stomachs of carnivores different?

A

-they have large expandable stomachs b/c they may go a long time between meals

40
Q

what is found within the human digestive system (and other animals)

A

-many bacteria to help produce nutrients
-diverse gut microbiome

41
Q

what is a gut microbiome? what is its purpose?

A

-collection of bacteria
-help with chemical breakdown to produce vitamins
-regulate development of epithelium
-immune system function
-can be analyzed and used in diagnostics

42
Q

what is present in many herbivores to help break down cellulose into simple sugars?

A

-fermentation chambers
-symbiotic (living within) microorganisms digest the cellulose into simple sugars

43
Q

what is coprophagy?

A

-animals that eat their own feces

44
Q

where is mutualistic bacteria present in rabbits and some rodents? how do they respond to this?

A

-live in the large intestine + cecum
-most nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, but nutrients made by bacteria are lost
-feed on feces to pass it through the alimentary canal a second time

45
Q

where is mutualistic bacteria located in most other animals?

A

-cecum

46
Q

where have the most elaborate adaptations for herbivores evolved? what is this adaptation?

A

-in ruminants
-multiple stomach chambers

47
Q

what are ruminants?

A

-cud-chewing animals
-ex: sheep + cattle

48
Q

how do giant tube worms receive nutrients? why do they receive them this way?

A

-obtain nutrients solely from mutualistic bacteria
-have no mouth or digestive system

49
Q

what are the 4 basic phases of urine formation?

A

-input in the renal artery
-glomerulus filtration in the bowman’s capsule
-tubular reabsorption and secretion in the renal tubule
-water conservation in the collecting duct

50
Q

what is the first step to urine formation?

A

-filtrate is formed when fluid passes from the bloodstream to the lumen of the bowman’s capsule (glomerulus)
-bowman’s capsule capillaries are permeable to water and small solutes

51
Q

what occurs in the proximal tubule during the second step to urine formation?

A

-reabsorption of ions, water, and nutrients occurs in the proximal tubule
-molecules transport actively and passively from filtrate -> interstitial fluid -> capillaries
-some metabolic waste is secreted into filtrate

52
Q

does filtrate volume increase or decrease once it finishes in the proximal tubule?

A

-decreases

53
Q

what does the proximal tubule help maintain?

A

-body fluid pH

54
Q

what occurs in the descending loop of henle during the second step to urine formation?

A

-water reabsorption continues through aquaporin protein channels

55
Q

what is the movement driven by in the descending loop of henle?

A

-high osmolarity of the interstitial fluid (hyperosmotic to the filtrate) causing water to move back
-will gain more osmolarity as it dips into the medulla

56
Q

what happens to the filtrate in the descending loop of henle?

A

-becomes more concentrated due to the loss of water

57
Q

what is a feature of the ascending loop of henle that is critical to its function?

A

-salt but not water can diffuse from the tubule to the interstitial fluid

58
Q

what happens to the filtrate in the ascending loop of henle?

A

-filtrate becomes more dilute (active transport within its thicker section)

59
Q

what occurs in the distal tubule? what does this contribute to?

A

-K+ and NaCl concentrations of body fluids are regulated
-contributes to the pH regulation

60
Q

what happens in the third step of urine formation?

A

-the collecting duct carries filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis
-water is lost + some salt + some urea
-filtrate is more concentrated
-urine is hyperosmotic to body fluids

61
Q

what determines urine concentration?

A

-hormonal control of the permeability and transport of ions and water

62
Q

what is a key terrestrial adaptation in terms of urine formation?

A

-the ability of a mammalian kidney to conserve water
-urine is much more concentrated than blood
-4x in humans and 25x in australian hopping mice

63
Q

what is cooperative action?

A

-active transport of solutes against concentration gradients

64
Q

what are the 2 things largely responsible for the osmotic gradient that concentrates urine?

A

-cooperative action
-precise arrangement of the loops of henle and collecting ducts

65
Q

what 2 solutes contribute to the osmolarity of interstitial fluid? what does this cause?

A

-NaCl + urea
-causes water reabsorption in the kidney which concentrates urine

66
Q

what leaves the proximal tubule?

A

-HCO3
-NaCl
-K+
-water
-nutrients

67
Q

what enters the proximal tubule?

A

-H+
-NH3

68
Q

what leaves the descending loop of henle?

A

-water

69
Q

what leaves the ascending loop of henle?

A

-NaCl

69
Q

what leaves the distal tubule?

A

-NaCl
-HC03
-water

70
Q

what enters the distal tubule?

A

-K+
-H+

71
Q

what leaves the collecting duct?

A

-NaCl
-urea
-water

72
Q

does the filtrates osmolarity change in the proximal tubule?

A

-no it remains the same

73
Q

what helps maintain a high salt concentration in the kidney? what does it allow?

A

-the countercurrent multiplier system in the loop of henle
-allows the vasa recta to supply the kidney with nutrients while not affecting the osmolarity gradient

74
Q

what are the vasa recta?

A

-branches of terminal arteries

75
Q

how is the ascending loop of henle able to perform active transport?

A

-considerable amount of energy is expended to maintain the osmolarity gradient between the medulla and the cortex

76
Q

what will be related to the osmoregulation requirements in an animals habitat?

A

-the form and function of the animals nephrons (various vertebrate classes)

77
Q

what type of nephrons are present in mammals?

A

-juxtamedullary nephron

78
Q

what type of effect does the juxtamedullary nephron have? what does it contribute to? give an example.

A

-urine concentrating effect
-contributes to water conservation
-desert animals have loops extending deep into the medulla as they have the most hyperosmotic urine (to conserve water)

79
Q

how do long loops of henle help animals?

A

-long loops maintain steep gradients

80
Q

how do the lengths of loops in dry environment animals relate to the length of loops in freshwater environment animals?

A

-dry environment animals have long loops
-freshwater environment animals have short loops

81
Q

how do birds conserve water?

A

-have shorter loops, but excrete uric acid (paste) instead of urea to conserve water

82
Q

what kind of nephrons do most reptiles have? how do they conserve water?

A

-cortical nephrons
-water is reabsorbed by epithelium in the chamber where urine and feces exits the body
-also excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid

83
Q

how do freshwater fishes conserve salt?

A

-conserve salt in their distal tubules
-excrete large volumes of dilute urine b/c they must excrete excess water continuously

84
Q

how is the kidney function of amphibians?

A

-similar to freshwater fishes
-conserve water on land by reabsorbing water from the urinary bladder

85
Q

how do marine bony fishes function in osmoregulation?

A

-gain excess salts from surrounding causing them to lose water
-hypoosmotic to their environment
-excrete little urine
-smaller nephrons without a distal tubule

BIOL1030 (11 decks)

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