Lecture 1

Question 1

what is taxonomy? what is it based on?

Answer 1

-discipline of naming and categorizing organisms
-based on shared traits

Question 2

what are examples of the traits that taxonomy revolves around?

Answer 2

-morphological traits
-developmental features/processes
-molecular

Question 3

what are morphological traits?

Answer 3

-appearance
-internal structures

Question 4

what is an example of how developmental features/processes can be used to compare organisms?

Answer 4

-life cycle of the organisms

Question 5

what are molecular traits?

Answer 5

-gene/protein sequences

Question 6

who were the levels of classification developed by?

Answer 6

-carolus linnaeus

Question 7

what are the levels of classification from most broad > most specific?

Answer 7

-domain
-kingdom
-phylum
-class
-order
-family
-genus
-species

Question 8

how does binomial scientific naming work?

Answer 8

-name formed from the genus + species
-latin names for consistency
-ex: homo sapiens

Question 9

what is phylogeny?

Answer 9

-evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

Question 10

what is systematics? what does it use?

Answer 10

-discipline that classifies organisms + determines their evolutionary relationships
-systematists use phylogenetic trees to relay information

Question 11

what types of data are used within systematics to infer evolutionary relationships?

Answer 11

-morphological data (phenotypes)
-biochemical data (proteins (myoglobin proteins))
-genetic data (DNA sequences)
-fossils

Question 12

what does a branch point on a phylogenetic tree represent? what is this event called?

Answer 12

-the divergence of 2 or more species from a common ancestor
-speciation event (produces 2 or more species)

Question 13

what is an outgroup on a phylogenetic tree?

Answer 13

-a more distantly related group of organisms
-branches off the initial ancestor ONLY
-used as a reference

Question 14

what is considered sister taxa on a phylogenetic tree?

Answer 14

-2 groups that share an immediate common ancestor

Question 15

what is considered a polytomy on a phylogenetic tree?

Answer 15

-more than 2 groups that share an immediate common ancestor

Question 16

what causes a polytomy?

Answer 16

-an unresolved level of divergence

Question 17

what is a rooted phylogenetic tree?

Answer 17

-represents the last common ancestor to all taxon

Question 18

what do phylogenies rely on? what are they due to?

Answer 18

-morphologies
-genes
-biochemistry of living organisms (chemical processes)
-due to homology, not analogy

Question 19

when would a phylogeny need to be revised?

Answer 19

-when new info is gathered/discovered that could affect the current understanding

Question 20

what are homologies?

Answer 20

-phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared common ancestry

Question 21

are evolutionary relationships present in homologies?

Answer 21

-YES

Question 22

what are homologous structures?

Answer 22

-similar structure (not always obvious)
-same or different function
-derived from a common ancestor

Question 23

what is analogy?

Answer 23

-similarities due to convergent evolution

Question 24

what are analogous structures?

Answer 24

-different structure (not always obvious)
-similar function
-due to convergent evolution (no common ancestry)

Question 25

what is a clade?

Answer 25

-a group of related species that includes an ancestral species + all of its descendants
-3 groupings

Question 26

what are the 3 groupings?

Answer 26

-monophyletic
-paraphyletic
-polyphyletic

Question 27

what is a monophyletic clade?

Answer 27

-contains the ancestral species and all of its descendants

Question 28

what is a paraphyletic group?

Answer 28

-contains the ancestral species, but not all of its descendants

Question 29

what is a polyphyletic group?

Answer 29

-contains distantly related species, but no common ancestor to all

Question 30

what is a shared ancestral character?

Answer 30

-a character that originates in an ancestor

Question 31

what is a shared derived character?

Answer 31

-a character that is novel to a specific clade
-not found in the ancestor

Question 32

if a shared derived character is present, what can the ancestor be defined as?

Answer 32

-an outgroup

Question 33

can a character be both ancestral and derived?

Answer 33

-yes, depending on context

Question 34

what are genome sequencing projects?

Answer 34

-projects that determine the sequence of all DNA in an organism

Question 35

what is needed for a genome sequencing project? how do they work?

Answer 35

-need computer programming and mathematical tools
-device called a nanopore sequencer
-algorithms score changes and then scores are compared

Question 36

what are DNA barcoding projects?

Answer 36

-projects that take segments of DNA + DNA related molecules and use coding techniques to identify many species

Question 37

what is the purpose of DNA barcoding projects?

Answer 37

-used against poachers (can detect from animal blood, hair, or meat)
-used to detect what animal attacked a human

Question 38

what DNA + DNA related molecules are used in coding to trace evolutionary history?

Answer 38

-rRNA
-mtDNA

Question 39

what is rRNA? how is it best used?

Answer 39

-ribosomal RNA
-changes + mutations are slower
-useful in investigating branch points far in the past

Question 40

what is mtDNA? how is it best used?

Answer 40

-mitochondrial DNA
-changes + mutations are faster
-useful in exploring recent evolutionary events

Question 41

what organisms are more likely to be closely related?

Answer 41

-organisms with similar morphologies or DNA sequences

Question 42

how does cladistics group organisms?

Answer 42

-groups them by common descent