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BIOL1030 > Lecture 6 > Flashcards

Lecture 6 Flashcards

1
Q

how have animal structures evolved? what is an example?

A

-as a result of functional outcomes
-ex: beavers flat and wide tail (used for locomotion, communication, body temp regulation)

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2
Q

what is anatomy?

A

-the biological form of an animal
-features that have evolved to enable survival in an animal’s environment

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3
Q

what is physiology?

A

-the biological functions an organism performs

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4
Q

what does the comparative study of animals reveal?

A

-that form and function are closely correlated

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5
Q

what is the basic principle?

A

-there is adaptation through natural selection
-variation meets environment

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6
Q

what does the size and shape of an animals forms affect?

A

-the way an animal interacts with its environment
-how it exchanges energy + materials with its surroundings (larger SA = higher exchange)

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7
Q

what does the genome determine?

A

-an animals body plan

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8
Q

what ability depends on an animals shape, size, and environment?

A

-ability to perform certain actions

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9
Q

what does evolutionary convergence reflect?

A

-different species adaptations to a similar environmental challenge

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10
Q

what happens when body dimensions increase?

A

-when body dimensions increase, stronger skeletons are needed to provide support
-muscles also must increase for locomotion purposes

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11
Q

what is an example of how physical laws impose constraints on animal size + shape

A

-waters dense property will limit the shape of fast swimmers
-tapered on both ends and body will be sleek to overcome drag during swimming

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12
Q

how does exchange occur within an animals cells?

A

-substances that have dissolved in an aqueous medium will diffuse and be transported across the membrane

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13
Q

what substances are typically exchanged?

A

-nutrients
-wastes
-gases

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14
Q

what correlates with the rate of exchange?

A

-membrane surface area

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15
Q

what correlates with the amount of material exchanged?

A

-cell volume

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16
Q

what allows multicellular organization to work?

A

-every cell having access to a suitable aqueous environment (inside + outside the body)
-body plans must meet this requirement

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17
Q

what are ideal body plans for multicellular organization?

A

-sac body plan
-body walls are only 2 cells thick to facilitate diffusion
-flat body plan
-most cells are exposed to intestinal fluid

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18
Q

how do highly complex organisms with high cell numbers increase their outer SA to volume ratio?

A

-branching + foldings

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19
Q

in vertebrates, what is between cells? what does this allow for?

A

-interstitial fluid
-allows for movement of material in and out of cells
-exchange with the circulatory fluid

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20
Q

what is biggest challenge for physiological systems?

A

-being able to survive in a variable environment

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21
Q

what helps animals survive in a variable environment?

A

-a complex body plan
-helps to keep the internal environment of the animal stable

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22
Q

for what type of animals specifically does a complex body plan help? why?

A

-land animals
-environments typically are more variable

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23
Q

what are most animals composed of?

A

-specialized cells organized into groups called tissues that deliver different functions

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24
Q

what do different tissue types create? what together will these create?

A

-create organs
-organs will together create organ systems

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25
Q

what do organ systems entail?

A

-higher level of organization and coordination

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26
Q

what differs between different tissue types?

A

-their structures
-structures are suited to their desired function

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27
Q

what two structures/organs are lined with similar tissue types?

A

-lungs
-blood vessels

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28
Q

what are the four main tissue catergories?

A

-epithelial
-connective
-muscle
-nervous

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29
Q

what is the purpose of epithelial tissue?

A

-covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body
-functions as a barrier

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30
Q

how are cells jointed within epithelial tissue?

A

-closely

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31
Q

what is the purpose of connective tissue?

A

-mainly binds and supports other tissues

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32
Q

what does connective tissue contain?

A

-sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
-fibroblasts
-macrophages

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33
Q

what do fibroblasts secrete?

A

-fibre proteins

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34
Q

what do macrophages do?

A

-engulf foreign particles and cell debris through phagocytosis

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35
Q

what does the extracellular matrix contain?

A

-fibres in a liquid jelly like or solid foundation/base

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36
Q

what are the types of muscle tissue?

A

-cardiac muscle
-skeletal muscle/striated muscle
-smooth muscle

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37
Q

what is the purpose of cardiac muscle?

A

-contraction of the heart

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38
Q

what is the purpose of skeletal muscle?

A

-attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movement

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39
Q

what is the purpose of smooth muscle?

A

-lines internal organs and is responsible for involuntary movement

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40
Q

what is the purpose of nervous tissue?

A

-senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the body

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41
Q

what does nervous tissue contain?

A

-neurons/nerve cells
-glial cells/glia

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42
Q

what is the function of neurons/nerve cells?

A

-transmit impulses

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43
Q

what is the function of glial cells/glia

A

-nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

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44
Q

what systems do control and coordination within the body depend on?

A

-endocrine system
-nervous system

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45
Q

what does the endocrine system do?

A

-transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive/target cells throughout the body via the blood

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46
Q

how many regions of the body can a hormone affect?

A

-one or more

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47
Q

what is an example of a fast acting hormone?

A

-epinephrine (adrenaline)

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48
Q

what is an example of a slow acting hormone?

A

-thyroid stimulating hormone

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49
Q

can slow acting hormones have long lasting effects?

A

-YES

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50
Q

what does the nervous system do?

A

-transmits information between specific locations

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51
Q

what does the information conveyed within the nervous system depend on?

A

-the signals pathway

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52
Q

what does the information conveyed within the nervous system not depend on?

A

-the type of signal

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53
Q

is nerve signal (electrochemical) transmission fast or slow?

A

-very fast

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54
Q

what types of cells can nerve impulses be received by?

A

-neurons
-muscle cells
-endocrine cells

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55
Q

how do animals manage their internal environment?

A

-by regulating or conforming to the external environment?

56
Q

how does a regulator deal with external environment changes?

A

-use internal control mechanisms to keep internal conditions stable despite environmental changes

57
Q

how does a conformer deal with external environment changes?

A

-allows its internal condition to vary relatively equally with the environmental changes
-may also seek other environments

58
Q

is it more energetically expensive to be a regulator or a conformer?

A

-regulator

59
Q

is it possible for animals to be both a regulator and a conformer depending on the nature of the conditon?

A

-YES
-no animal is truly one or the other, they just tend to be more of one than the other

60
Q

what is an example of an animal that is a regulator for one condition and a conformer for another condition?

A

-largemouth bass
-thermoconformer
-ionregulator

61
Q

what is homeostatis?

A

-maintenance of internal balance (keeping a constant internal environment)

62
Q

in humans what conditions are maintained at a constant level by homeostatsis?

A

-body temp
-blood pH
-glucose []

63
Q

what serves as the stimulus for homeostatsis?

A

-flucutuations above or below the internal set point

64
Q

what detects stimuli? what does this trigger?

A

-sensor or receptor in the body
-triggers a response to bring the condition back to the set point

65
Q

how does negative feedback act? what stops the system?

A

-acts to reverse/return a condition to its normal range/set point
-a buildup of the end product will shut the system off

66
Q

how do most homeostatic control systems function?

A

-by negative feedback

67
Q

how does positive feedback act? what is an example of where positive feedback acts?

A

-acts to drive certain processes (not usually contributing to homeostasis)
-escalate a trend
-ex: childbirth

68
Q

what are some important aspects of set points and normal ranges?

A

-may change with age
-can show cyclic patterns (circadian rhythm)

69
Q

what is often confused with adaptation?

A

-acclimation
-acclimization

70
Q

what is acclimation?

A

-remodeling in response to a single environmental factor
-simple

71
Q

what is acclimization?

A

-the process of the adjustment of homeostasis to complex changes in the external environment
-complex

72
Q

what is thermoregulation?

A

-the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a normal range

73
Q

what are many processes dependant on?

A

-temperature
-higher temp may increase efficiency or vice versa

74
Q

what are endothermic animals? what are examples?

A

-animals that generate heat by metabolism (internal body processes)
-can withstand large fluctuations in their external environment
-ex: birds + mammals

75
Q

what are ectothermic animals? what are examples?

A

-animals that gain heat from external sources
-may produce some heat in metabolism but not an influential amount
-ex: most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles

76
Q

generally which type of animals will need to consume less food? why?

A

-ectotherms
-don’t need to fuel metabolic process as much as endotherms
-endothermy is more energetically expensive (need a higher consumption)

77
Q

what is the key difference between endotherms and ectotherms?

A

-endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures
-ectotherms can tolerate greater variation in internal temperatures

78
Q

how is the body temperature of a pokilotherm?

A

-varies with its environment

79
Q

how is the body temperature of a homeotherm?

A

-relatively constant
-not perfectly correlated with endothermy and ectothermy

80
Q

how is the body temperature of a heterotherm?

A

-maintains different temperatures within different regions of its body
-ex: shark

81
Q

how do organisms exchange heat?

A

-through 4 processes
-conduction
-convection
-radiation
-evaporation

82
Q

what does heat regulation in mammals typically involve?

A

-the integumentary system (skin, hair, nails)

83
Q

what is radiation?

A

-emission of electromagnetic waves (sunlight)

84
Q

what is conduction?

A

-direct transfer of heat through contact

85
Q

what is convection?

A

-transfer of heat through movement of air or liquid

86
Q

what is evaporation?

A

-removal of heat by evaporation

87
Q

what are the 5 adaptations that help animals thermoregulate?

A

-insulation
-circulatory adaptations
-cooling by evaporative heat loss
-behavioural responses
-adjusting metabolic heat production

88
Q

what are examples of things that insulate animals? what do they do exactly?

A

-skin, feathers, fur, and blubber
-reduce heat flow between an animal and its environment

89
Q

what are animals changing with circulatory adaptations?

A

-how much blood flow is near the bodies surface

90
Q

what are the 3 methods of circulatory adaptations?

A

-vasodilation
-vasoconstriction
-countercurrent exchange

91
Q

what is vasodilation?

A

-blood flow near the surface increases, facilitating heat loss to the environment (endotherm common)
-superficial blood vessels widen

92
Q

what is vasoconstriction?

A

-blood flow near the surface decreases, lowering the amount of heat loss to the environment
-superficial blood vessels shrink

93
Q

what is countercurrent exchange?

A

-heat is transferred between fluids flowing in opposite directions (veins + arteries)
-artery temp is warmer than vein temp
-important mechanism for reducing heat loss
-can be temporarily shut down

94
Q

what allows for an animal to perform countercurrent exchange? what types of animals perform this?

A

-the arrangement of their blood vessels
-ex: marine mammals and birds

95
Q

what is evaporative cooling? what increases the cooling affect?

A

-heat loss through the evaporation of water in sweat
-sweating cools an animal down
-panting can increase this effect

96
Q

what are behavioural responses to control body temp?

A

-seeking areas of ideal temperature
-terrestrial invertebrates have postures that minimize or maximize the absorption of solar heat (sun)

97
Q

how is metabolic heat production increased typically?

A

-muscle activity (moving or shivering)

98
Q

what do some mammals poses that help produce heat?

A

-brown adipose tissue (specialized to produce heat)
-produce heat by cells through proteins called thermogenin

99
Q

how do the thermogenin proteins produce heat?

A

-cause mitochondria to produce heat rather than ATP

100
Q

what is the process of heat production called?

A

-thermogenesis

101
Q

what region of the brain controls thermoregulation?

A

-hypothalamus
-triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms
-sensor/receptor

102
Q

what type of environment do physiological systems operate in? what must be maintained here?

A

-fluid environment
-water and solute concentrations must be maintained within fairly narrow limits (maintaining osmolarity)

103
Q

what is osmoregulation?

A

-regulates solute concentrations and balances the loss and gain of water

104
Q

what are the common solutes that must be maintained within the body?

A

-sodium
-calcium

105
Q

what adaptations do freshwater animals have to help with osmoregulation?

A

-adaptations that reduce water uptake and conserve solutes

106
Q

what kind of environments do desert and marine animals live in? how do they adapt?

A

-desiccating environments that can deplete body water
-conserve water in fish
-eliminate excess salt in marine birds + fish

107
Q

what does excretion get rid of?

A

-nitrogenous metabolites
-waste products

108
Q

what is osmoregulation largely based on?

A

-controlled movement of solutes between internal fluids and the external environment

109
Q

what do cells require in terms of osmoregulation?

A

-a balance between osmotic gain and the loss of water in order to regulate chemical composition of body fluids

110
Q

what is osmolarity? what does it determine? what are its units?

A

-the solute concentration of a solution
-determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
-units are osmoles of solute per litre of solution (Osm/L)

111
Q

what does it mean for 2 solutions to be isosmotic?

A

-the movement of water is equal in both directions
-no net movement of water

112
Q

what is a hypoosmotic solution?

A

-more dilute solution

113
Q

what is a hyperosmotic solution?

A

-less dilute solution

114
Q

what will happen if 2 solutions differ in osmolarity?

A

-the net flow of water will be from the hypoosmotic solution to the hyperosmotic solution

115
Q

what are osmoconformers? what animals are they?

A

-isosmotic with their surroundings and do not regulate their osmolarity
-ex: only some marine animals (most marine invertebrates)

116
Q

what are osmoregulators? what animals are they?

A

-expend energy to control water uptake in a hypoosmotic environment and water loss in a hyperosmotic environment
-minimizes the change in internal osmolarity
-ex: freshwater and some marine animals (marine vertebrates and some invertebrates)

117
Q

what determines solute concentrations?

A

-the activity of protein transporters that move ions and solutes in and out of the cell

118
Q

what type of animals differ in their ability to tolerate changes in external environments?

A

-aquatic animals

119
Q

what does it mean for an animal to be stenohaline?

A

-cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
-makes up most animals

120
Q

what does it mean for an animal to be euryhaline?

A

-can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity

121
Q

does an animals osmotic strategy relate to their osmotic tolerance? what is an example?

A

-they do not relate
-ex: sockeye salmon is a euryhaline osmoregulator

122
Q

how do terrestrial animals regulate water movement?

A

-through diet and excretion

123
Q

what is known of the physiological mechanisms for water and ion balance in terms of their evolutionary history?

A

-they have been evolutionarily conserved
-meaning they are present in a majority of species (origin to present)

124
Q

how do marine bony fishes perform osmoregulation?

A

-hypoosmotic to seawater (lose water by osmosis, gain salt by diffusion and from food)
-balance water loss by drinking seawater and excreting salts (through kidney and gills)

125
Q

how do the gills of marine bony fishes excrete salts?

A

-actively transport Cl- out and passively allow Na+ to follow

126
Q

how does the kidney of marine bony fishes excrete salts?

A

-excess calcium, magnesium, and sulfate excreted in small amounts of water

127
Q

how do freshwater animals perform osmoregulation?

A

-take in water constantly by osmosis (hypoosmotic environment)
-lose salt by diffusion
-maintain water balance by excreting large amounts of dilute urine
-salt loss is replaced by food intake + gill uptake

128
Q

what is a diadromous fish? what are some examples?

A

-live part in salt and part in freshwater
-ex: salmon + eels

129
Q

what is required for a fish to be diadromous? what is this process called?

A

-reorganization of osmoregulatory systems
-smoltification (complex series of changes)

130
Q

what is smoltification and when does it occur?

A

-complex series of physiological changes
-prepares fish to enter seawater after the final step of acclimization

131
Q

how are desert animals able to save so much water?

A

-simple anatomical features (body coverings)
-behaviours (nocturnal lifestyle)

132
Q

how are land animals able to lose and gain water?

A

-lose water through urine, feces, skin, etc
-gain water through drinking, eating moist foods, and metabolic water

133
Q

what is transport epithelia?

A

-specialized epithelial cells that regulate solute movement
-essential component of osmotic regulation and metabolic waste disposal

134
Q

how is transport epithelia arranged?

A

-complex tubular networks (increase SA)

135
Q

what is an example of transport epithelia?

A

-the salt glands of marine birds
-remove excess sodium chloride from the blood

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