Lecture 2- Theories of Development Flashcards
These are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles
Theories
True or False
Different theories look at different aspects of development
TRUE
3 Major types of Theories in the study of development
- biological and evolutionary theories
- psychological theories (psychoanalytic, humanistic, learning/behavioral, cognitive)
- systems/ contextual theory (bioecological, ecobiodevelopmental)
The keypoint in this type of influence is genetic and physiological processes underlie human behaviour.
Biological influences
True or False
Genetic and epigenetic factors interact with the environment to shape our health and well-being across the lifespan
TRUE
The study of gene regulation patterns that alter gene function without changing the gene structure.
Alter the phenotype without changing the genotype
Epigenetics
This is what you call the genetic material on your chromosomes
Genotype
This is what we observe outside (physical)
Phenotype
______ markers regulate gene expression.
also regulate phenotype
These signal some genes to turn on or off.
Genetic
Why are experiences important?
SOme of the experiences that we have can result in altered epigenetic structures at the molecular level. And some of these changes can even be passed on to the next generation.
The set of all of the chemical tags that are attached to the genome of a given cell
Epigenome
True of false
Epigenetic changes can boost or interfere with the transcription of specific genes.
TRUE
This type of theory explains individual differences and commonalities as a species with a focus on genetic and environmental mechanisms.
The key theorists are DARWIN and LORENZ
Evolutionary Theories
In this perspective, what develops is the process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment.
How development proceeds: Behaviour is result of genetic inheritance, even from ancestors.
Evolutionary Perspective
This evolutionary theory emphasize on genetically determined survival behaviours have evolved through natural selection
Ethology
This evolutionary theory puts emphasis on traits are said to be influenced by genes when related people are more similar than those who are unrelated.
Behaviour genetics
This evolutionary theory puts emphasis on the view that genetically inherited cognitive and social traits have evolved through natural selection.
Evolutionary Psychology
This is the view that genetically inherited cognitive and social characteristics that promote survival and adaptation appear at different times across the lifespan.
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Example of evolutionary developmental psychology
Newborn genetically programmed with a predisposition to learn language or recognize faces (newborn babies are not a blank slate)
This type of psychological theory states that developmental change happens because of the influence of internal (inner) drives and emotions on behaviour.
Behaviour is motivated by inner forces, inner conflicts and we don’t consciously have control over this.
Key theorists are FREUD and ERIKSON
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s _____ theory is saying that we are focusing our energy on different zones at different parts of our lives.
The idea in this is our personality ahs 3 structures
What develops: focus on inner person, conscious and unconscious forces act to determine personality and behaviour
Psychosexual Theory
what are the three structures of Freud’s psychosexual theory?
These are constantly in conflict with each other
- Id- core personality, irrational, pleasure principle, eros (libido) and Thanatos (aggression)
- Ego- develops out of an id and subdues its impulses, go-between for id and reality, reality principle
- Superego- sense of right and wrong based on morality
regulated by ego ideal and conscience
exists at all levels of conscious awareness
This principle is where you are constantly trying to decide under what conditions can the Id get its way. How can the Id safely discharge its impulses and satisfy its needs.
Reality Principle
If we have any problems at any of these stages, Freud says we’re gonna get fixated on these things. When we get fixated on these things, that is going to cause us problems with our development
Psychosexual stages
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages of Freud?
- Oral stage
- Anal stage
- Phallic stage
- Latent stage
- Genital stage
This psychosexual stage is from birth to 1 year.
The erogenous zone is the mouth
This is all about eating and exploring things (putting everything in mouth)
Oral Stage
If you are neglected or not fed enough when you were a baby, this can cause problems.
If fed too much, can also be a problem. If you have this oral fixation because of too much or too little feeding, it can lead to drinking too much, smoking, nail biting, talking too much
In this psychosexual stage, toilet training is the major task
Form 2-3 years
Anal stage
If toilet training starts too early, the anal pleasure is denied. Freud says this can result in an _______. Which means you are really stubborn, tidy, punctual
Anal Character
If you are too lenient with your child in toilet training- you just let them pee or poo wherever or in their diaper for too long, it can result in an ___________, which means messy, reckless, tardy, disruptive, say bad things
Anal Expulsive Personality
This psychosexual stage is from 3-6 yrs old where the genitals are the source of erotic pleasure.
This is where the Oedipus complex happens and castration anxiety of boys
Phallic Stage
What are problems that result when you have unresolved Oedipus complex?
Problem with over indulging, avoiding sex or a weak sexual identity.
This psychosexual stage is from 7-11 yrs old where everybody is just repressing things
Boys play together and girls play together
Latency period
This psychosexual stage is from 11 yrs- adulthood where a lot of energy goes into pleasure form one’s genitals.
These stages are sequential according to Freud (one happens after another)
Genital Stage
Why do you have to successfully resolve each of the psychosexual stages?
Because if you don’t you are not going to be a healthy adult. It will lead to unhealthy personality traits.
It is the first widely accepted theory of personality development where Erik Erikson modifies Freud’s idea
States that development is happening throughout the lifespan
Focuses on social interaction with others.
Psychosocial Theory
What are the 8 stages in Psychosocial Theory?
- trust vs. mistrust (hope) - infancy
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt (will)- early childhood
- initiative vs. guilt (purpose) - preschool
- industry vs. inferiority (competence) - school age
- identity vs. role confusion (fidelity)- adolescence
- intimacy vs isolation (love) - young adulthood
- generativity vs. stagnation (care) - middle adulthood
- ego integrity vs. despair (wisdom) - maturity
What’s the term called when you can look back on your life and you can say “I did good” ?
ego integrity
The principle of this theory focus on positive aspects of development
Developmental force: behavior is motivated by positive drives and emotions
Key theorists are MASLOW and ROGERS
Humanistic Alternative
Who came up with the humanistic theory of personality wherein people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-actualization?
He studied the personality of people who were healthy, creative and productive like Albert Einstein.
a. Charles Darwin
b. Abraham Maslow
c. Erik Erikson
Abraham Maslow
What is the goal of Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
a. to achieve self-actualization
b. achieve safety
c. achieve love/belonging
Achieve self-actualization
____ drives to maintain inner balance
Deficiency motives
____ drives to understand and give to others
Being motives
_____ describes the ultimate goal in human life; reaching one’s potential
Self-actualization
_____ gives importance in adulthood; having a sense of value and acceptance
Esteem needs
What are the hierarchy of needs of Abraham MAslow?
Self-actualization- process of completely knowing and accepting ourselves.
Esteem-good self-esteem and recognition of others
Love/Belonging- need to feel loved, innnate relationship, family, friends
Safety- security
Physiological- food, water, warmth
You are said to have optimal psychological health and functioning when you satisfy your ______ needs
self-actualization
Carl Roger’s _______ said that for a person to grow you need an environment that supports development. One when you’re allowed to be open and genuine, there’s acceptance, empathy where you can be listened to, understood.
Theory of Self
What develops in the theory of self by Carl Rogers?
Self concept
This means you have potential for growth in a supportive environment
Personal growth
According to _______, everybody is born with the innate desire to actualize themselves. This desire is our most basic fuel and guides our direction in life.
a. Charles Darwin
b. Abraham Maslow
c. Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers - according to him it’s not only the person themselves that impacts if they can self-actualize or nor- their environment is important too.
Carl Rogers claim we have two basic innate drives.((basic human needs) What are these?
- Need for self-actualization
- Need for positive regard
This positive regard is when others like us and they respect us with no strings attached.
Ex: parents accepting you when you tell them you want to be an artist even though they want you to be a doctor.
” I like you, I care about you just the way you are”
Unconditional positive regard
This positive regard has conditions. Acceptance by others only when you’re meeting their expectations.
Ex: I will like you and respect you but only when you’re successful.
Conditional positive regard
What is the result of an unconditional positive regard?
Self-actualization
What is the result of a conditional positive regard?
Self-discrepancies
These theories focus on how experiences in the environment shape the child; behaviour is shaped by processes of classical and operant conditioning.
Key theorists are PAVLOV, WATSON, and SKINNER
Learning/Behavioural Theories
What are the focus of Pavlov and Watson’s classical conditioning?
Observable behaviour and outside environmental stimuli
Behaviour is result of continuing exposure to specific environmental factors; developmental change is quantitative.
This is how development proceeds in ______
Classical conditioning
This is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response.
Ex experiment: Exposing dog to stimulus
Classical conditioning
He took Pavlov’s research a step further by showing that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in humans.
He argued that by effectively controlling a peron’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behaviour.
a. Charles Darwin
b. John Watson
c. Erik Erikson
John Watson
The little Albert experiment is an example of Watson’s _______? where it demonstated that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in humans.
This experiment showed that phobias can develop through ________.
Classical conditioning
He claimed that people operate on their environment to bring about a desired state of affairs.
a. B.F. Skinner
b. James Watson
c. Charles Darwin
B.F Skinner
In this type of conditioning by B.F Skinner, it focuses on observable behaviour and outside environmental stimuli.
How development proceeds: voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by association with negative or positive consequences.
Operant Conditioning
____ increases the probability of some behaviour being repeated and it does that by delivering or removing a stimulus immediately after behaviour.
It happens when a behaviour is repeated because of the consequence that followed it.
Reinforcement
This type of reinforcement involves adding a “pleasant” consequence to an action to increase the probability of the action being continued.
Ex: a man gives his daughter praise for doing her homework.
praise= reinforcing stimulus
homework= behaviour
Positive reinforcement
This type of reinforcement involves the removal of something “unpleasant” and results in the increase of the probability of the action occurring again.
Ex: Evelyn does the dishes (behaviour) in order to stop her mom from nagging her (aversive stimulus)
Negative reinforcement
_____ decreases the probability that the behaviour will be repeated.
When a behaviour stops/decreases because of a consequence, ____ has occurred.
Punishment
true or false
When somebody performs a behavior that’s usually punished but it’s not punished this time, that lack of punishment can promote the behaviour.
TRUE
This type of punishment involves adding something “unpleasant” such as scolding.
This works by presenting an aversive consequence after an undesired behaviour is exhibited and this makes the behaviour less likely to happen in the future.
Ex: A child swears in class (behaviour) and the teacher reprimands the student (aversive stimulus)
Positive punishment
This type of punishment involves the removal of something “pleasant” such as taking away TV privileges.
Ex: a child hits their peer (behaviour) and is removed from their favourite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed)
Negative punishment
_____ is a decrease in behaviour after repeated non-reinforcement (e.g. ignoring it)
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Extinction
In _______ behavious is reinforced sometimes but not others- is more common in the real world.
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Partial reinforcement
______ happens when an individual learns a complex behaviour through the reinforcement of intermediate steps.
Each steps includes reinforcement, such as praise from a parent.
When a child masters a step, the reinforcement for the previous step is discontinued.
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Shaping
These theories emphasizes mental aspects of development, such as logic and memory.
Key theorists are PIAGET, BANDURA, VYGOTSKY, INFORMATION PROCESSING
Cognitive theories
He is the father of cognitive development.
he wanted to understand how the adult mind develops.
he observed, tested, questioned children by observing children’s play. he takes notes and extract clues about how they think about the world.
he noticed that young children provide qualitatively different answers than older children and he presented children with tasks to solve and question them about their reasons for the solutions taht they offered on these tasks (ex: number conservation)
Jean Piaget
What are the 3 key features of Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory?
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Equilibration
Piaget’s _________ focus on processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
_____ is a category of knowledge, that a child puts together to understand the world. It may represent behaviours, objects, events, or concepts.
When a children play and explore, they/re acting on objects and they’re developing this mental representation.
Ex: child developing a ____ of a bubble.
Scheme
Piaget believes that humans create their own understanding of the world. He believed that learning is caused by a blend of two processes: __________ and ___________
Assimilation and Accommodation
_______ is less mentally challenging than accommodation. Children transform incoming information so that it fits within their existing thinking.
A child uses preexisting schemes to understand a new object or situation
Ex: by calling the picture of COVID-19 virus a bubble.
Assimilation
_________ is where children adapt their thinking to incoming information.
A child adapts preexisting scheme to fit a new experience or object. The child creates a new scheme of virus.
Accommodation
______ is the process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create schemes that fit the environment- we learn what works and what does not work in particular situations.
This motivates a child to continue through the stages of cognitive development.
Equilibration
When a child experiences assimilation, their world view is inaccurate. They’re in a state of disequilibrium. This motivates the child to accommodate new info. to reach a state of _____
equilibrium
Piaget suggested that equilibration takes 3 phases:
- The children are satisfied with their scheme and therefore in a state of equilibrium.
Ex: the child calls the CPVID-19 virus photo a bubble and the kid is okay with that but the mom says “no it’s not a bubble, it’s a virus” and the child becomes aware that their thinking is incorrect and now the child is in the state of: - Disequilibrium- experiencing cognitive conflict
- Child develops a more sophisticated way of thinking and calls the photo of a COVID-19 virus a “virus” and in doing so, reaches a more stable state of equilibrium.
What are Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive Development?
- Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 yrs)
- Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs)
- Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs)
- Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)
This cognitive development stage is where the baby understands the world through er senses and her motor actions; she begins to use simple symbols, such as single words and pretend play, near the end of this period
Sensorimotor stage
This cognitive development stage is where the child’s logic takes a great leap forward with the development of new internal operations, such as conversation and class inclusion, but is still tied to the known world; by the end of the period, he can reason about simple “what if” questions.
Concrete operational stage
This cognitive development stage, the child can use symbols both to think and to communicate; he develops the abilities to take others’ points of view, classify objects, and use simple logic by the end of this stage.
Preoperational Stage
This cognitive development stage, the child begins to manipulate ideas as well as objects; she thinks hypothetically and, by adulthood, can easily manage a variety of “what if” questions; she greatly improves her ability to organize ideas and objects mentally.
Formal operational stage
In __________ the focus is primarily on thinking and memory.
Information enters the mind but the input is transformed by mental programs and is used to perform actions and that is the output.
Information Processing
_______ approaches seek to identify the ways that individuals take in information, use information, and store information.
Information Processing
In _______, you organize information to be stores in memory
Encoding
____ refers to keeping information
Storage
_____ refers to getting information out of memory
Retrieval
Three types of memory in information processing
- Sensory memory- sensory information becomes sensory memory
- Short-term memory (working memory) - component where info. is processed
- Long-term memory- component where info. is permanently stored
The ________ are theories that expand on Piaget’s theory rather than contradict it.
They assume that cognitive growth is more QUANTITATIVE than qualitative. They suggested as children develop, they’re better able to control their mental processing and they’re better able to change the strategies that they choose to process info.
Neo Piagetian
This approaches on the forefront to cutting edge research that have identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease.
What develops: focus on cognitive development through lens of brain
Approach considers internal, mental processes, but focuses specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behaviour.
Cognitive Neuroscience
_________ neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity
Cognitive
He focused on the role of social interaction.
He created the sociocultural theory and argued that social learning shapes the development of cognitive competence.
Argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children.
a. Lev Vygotsky
b. Charles Darwin
c. Erik Erikson
Lev Vygotsky
________ signifies tasks that are too hard for the child to do alone, but that he can manage with guidance.
Zone of proximal development
A method in which assistance by more knowledgeable others is aimed slightly above what a child can do on his/her own creating an environment that actually enhances children’s learning.
As the child becomes more competent, supports are gradually removed and the child takes over.
Scaffolding
He said that learning does not always require reinforcement.
Sometimes we learn from watching others. (Observational learning/Modelling)
a. Lev Vygotsky
b. Albert Bandura
c. Charles Darwin
Albert Bandura
This theory by Bandura suggests that a certain amount of learning is in the form of ___________ which is learning by observing the behaviour of other people so that the other person that you’re observing would be called a model.
This theory has come to predominate over simply assuming learning or development happens just from classical and operant conditioning.
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
How does development proceeds in social cognitive learning theory?
Through imitation, observational learning/modelling
Observer has to pay attention to the model’s behaviour, observer must successfully recall the behaviour and behaviour must be reproduced accurately and the observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behaviour.
In _________ human development is based on: Personal factors, behavioural factors, and environmental factors.
Reciprocal determinism
_______ is the belief in one’s own capacity to case an intended event to occur or to perform a task.
people who believe that they can perform a task are said to have a high _____ about the task.
Self-efficacy
What is one best way to get people to have a higher self-efficacy?
Give a person mastery experiences so that they can try the behaviour and actually succeed at it.
The interaction between the person and their behaviour is influenced by their _____ and _____.
thoughts and actions
The interaction between the person and the environment involves ______ and ______ developed and modified by social influences.
beliefs and cognitive competencies
The interaction between the environment and their behaviour involves the person’s _____ determining their environment, which in turn, affects their behaviour.
behaviour
The view that personal (biophysical, spiritual, behavioural, intellectual, emotional) and external (physical environment, social & cultural influences) factors form a dynamic integrated system.
Systems approach
the ‘whole’ is primarily and is often greater than the sum of its parts; A person develops in relation to changes in any part of the whole dynamic system (personal and external)
Holism
___ is the result of adaptive adjustment
Wellness
He proposed the Bioecological Theory, which states different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals.
he explains development in terms of the relationships between people and their environment over the passage of time.
a. Bronfenbrenner
b. Charles Darwin
c. Erik Erikson
Bronfenbrenner
Ecological perspective says that development can be affected by influences happening at multiple levels.
This is Bronfenbrenner’s _______ theory
Bioecological
This is the innermost circle in the bioecological theory. It is the child’s genetic make-up and developmental stage
Individual context
This is also called immediate context.
Includes those variables to which people are exposed directly, such as their families, schools, religious institutions, and neighbourhoods.
microsystem
_____ contains the interconnections between these components. - child home and school linking students to parents, students to teachers, ….
This connects various aspects of the microsystem
Mesosystem
this is also called socioeconomic context
It includes the institutions of the culture that affect a child’s development indirectly
Ex: parent’s workplace, local government, community, school, …
Exosystem
Also called cultural context
Contains the values and beliefs of the culture in which a child is growing up.
Ex: Eastern vs. Western culture (larger cultural influences
Macrosystem
This approach looks at early childhood policies, practices, and interventions aimed specifically at health promotion and disease prevention.
Promotes advocacy across all levels of the socioeconomic and political spectrums.
Looks at early social and environmental experiences (ecology) and the genetic predisposition (biology) and how they influence the development of adaptive behaviours, learning capacities, lifelong physical and mental health and future economic productivity.
Ecobiodevelopmental Approach
What are the three principles to improve outcomes for Children?
- Support responsive relationships
- Strengthen core life skills
- Reduce sources of stress
