Lecture 2- Theories of Development Flashcards
1
Q
These are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles
A
Theories
2
Q
True or False
Different theories look at different aspects of development
A
TRUE
3
Q
3 Major types of Theories in the study of development
A
- biological and evolutionary theories
- psychological theories (psychoanalytic, humanistic, learning/behavioral, cognitive)
- systems/ contextual theory (bioecological, ecobiodevelopmental)
4
Q
The keypoint in this type of influence is genetic and physiological processes underlie human behaviour.
A
Biological influences
5
Q
True or False
Genetic and epigenetic factors interact with the environment to shape our health and well-being across the lifespan
A
TRUE
6
Q
The study of gene regulation patterns that alter gene function without changing the gene structure.
Alter the phenotype without changing the genotype
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Epigenetics
7
Q
This is what you call the genetic material on your chromosomes
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Genotype
8
Q
This is what we observe outside (physical)
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Phenotype
9
Q
______ markers regulate gene expression.
also regulate phenotype
These signal some genes to turn on or off.
A
Genetic
10
Q
Why are experiences important?
A
SOme of the experiences that we have can result in altered epigenetic structures at the molecular level. And some of these changes can even be passed on to the next generation.
11
Q
The set of all of the chemical tags that are attached to the genome of a given cell
A
Epigenome
12
Q
True of false
Epigenetic changes can boost or interfere with the transcription of specific genes.
A
TRUE
13
Q
This type of theory explains individual differences and commonalities as a species with a focus on genetic and environmental mechanisms.
The key theorists are DARWIN and LORENZ
A
Evolutionary Theories
14
Q
In this perspective, what develops is the process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment.
How development proceeds: Behaviour is result of genetic inheritance, even from ancestors.
A
Evolutionary Perspective
15
Q
This evolutionary theory emphasize on genetically determined survival behaviours have evolved through natural selection
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Ethology
16
Q
This evolutionary theory puts emphasis on traits are said to be influenced by genes when related people are more similar than those who are unrelated.
A
Behaviour genetics
17
Q
This evolutionary theory puts emphasis on the view that genetically inherited cognitive and social traits have evolved through natural selection.
A
Evolutionary Psychology
18
Q
This is the view that genetically inherited cognitive and social characteristics that promote survival and adaptation appear at different times across the lifespan.
A
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
19
Q
Example of evolutionary developmental psychology
A
Newborn genetically programmed with a predisposition to learn language or recognize faces (newborn babies are not a blank slate)
20
Q
This type of psychological theory states that developmental change happens because of the influence of internal (inner) drives and emotions on behaviour.
Behaviour is motivated by inner forces, inner conflicts and we don’t consciously have control over this.
Key theorists are FREUD and ERIKSON
A
Psychoanalytic Theory
21
Q
Freud’s _____ theory is saying that we are focusing our energy on different zones at different parts of our lives.
The idea in this is our personality ahs 3 structures
What develops: focus on inner person, conscious and unconscious forces act to determine personality and behaviour
A
Psychosexual Theory
22
Q
what are the three structures of Freud’s psychosexual theory?
These are constantly in conflict with each other
A
- Id- core personality, irrational, pleasure principle, eros (libido) and Thanatos (aggression)
- Ego- develops out of an id and subdues its impulses, go-between for id and reality, reality principle
- Superego- sense of right and wrong based on morality
regulated by ego ideal and conscience
exists at all levels of conscious awareness
23
Q
This principle is where you are constantly trying to decide under what conditions can the Id get its way. How can the Id safely discharge its impulses and satisfy its needs.
A
Reality Principle
24
Q
If we have any problems at any of these stages, Freud says we’re gonna get fixated on these things. When we get fixated on these things, that is going to cause us problems with our development
A
Psychosexual stages
25
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages of Freud?
1. Oral stage
2. Anal stage
3. Phallic stage
4. Latent stage
5. Genital stage
26
This psychosexual stage is from birth to 1 year.
The erogenous zone is the mouth
This is all about eating and exploring things (putting everything in mouth)
Oral Stage
If you are neglected or not fed enough when you were a baby, this can cause problems.
If fed too much, can also be a problem. If you have this oral fixation because of too much or too little feeding, it can lead to drinking too much, smoking, nail biting, talking too much
27
In this psychosexual stage, toilet training is the major task
Form 2-3 years
Anal stage
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If toilet training starts too early, the anal pleasure is denied. Freud says this can result in an _______. Which means you are really stubborn, tidy, punctual
Anal Character
29
If you are too lenient with your child in toilet training- you just let them pee or poo wherever or in their diaper for too long, it can result in an ___________, which means messy, reckless, tardy, disruptive, say bad things
Anal Expulsive Personality
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This psychosexual stage is from 3-6 yrs old where the genitals are the source of erotic pleasure.
This is where the Oedipus complex happens and castration anxiety of boys
Phallic Stage
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What are problems that result when you have unresolved Oedipus complex?
Problem with over indulging, avoiding sex or a weak sexual identity.
32
This psychosexual stage is from 7-11 yrs old where everybody is just repressing things
Boys play together and girls play together
Latency period
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This psychosexual stage is from 11 yrs- adulthood where a lot of energy goes into pleasure form one's genitals.
These stages are sequential according to Freud (one happens after another)
Genital Stage
34
Why do you have to successfully resolve each of the psychosexual stages?
Because if you don't you are not going to be a healthy adult. It will lead to unhealthy personality traits.
35
It is the first widely accepted theory of personality development where Erik Erikson modifies Freud's idea
States that development is happening throughout the lifespan
Focuses on social interaction with others.
Psychosocial Theory
36
What are the 8 stages in Psychosocial Theory?
1. trust vs. mistrust (hope) - infancy
2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (will)- early childhood
3. initiative vs. guilt (purpose) - preschool
4. industry vs. inferiority (competence) - school age
5. identity vs. role confusion (fidelity)- adolescence
6. intimacy vs isolation (love) - young adulthood
7. generativity vs. stagnation (care) - middle adulthood
8. ego integrity vs. despair (wisdom) - maturity
37
What's the term called when you can look back on your life and you can say "I did good" ?
ego integrity
38
The principle of this theory focus on positive aspects of development
Developmental force: behavior is motivated by positive drives and emotions
Key theorists are MASLOW and ROGERS
Humanistic Alternative
39
Who came up with the humanistic theory of personality wherein people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-actualization?
He studied the personality of people who were healthy, creative and productive like Albert Einstein.
a. Charles Darwin
b. Abraham Maslow
c. Erik Erikson
Abraham Maslow
40
What is the goal of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
a. to achieve self-actualization
b. achieve safety
c. achieve love/belonging
Achieve self-actualization
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____ drives to maintain inner balance
Deficiency motives
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____ drives to understand and give to others
Being motives
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_____ describes the ultimate goal in human life; reaching one's potential
Self-actualization
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_____ gives importance in adulthood; having a sense of value and acceptance
Esteem needs
45
What are the hierarchy of needs of Abraham MAslow?
Self-actualization- process of completely knowing and accepting ourselves.
Esteem-good self-esteem and recognition of others
Love/Belonging- need to feel loved, innnate relationship, family, friends
Safety- security
Physiological- food, water, warmth
46
You are said to have optimal psychological health and functioning when you satisfy your ______ needs
self-actualization
47
Carl Roger's _______ said that for a person to grow you need an environment that supports development. One when you're allowed to be open and genuine, there's acceptance, empathy where you can be listened to, understood.
Theory of Self
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What develops in the theory of self by Carl Rogers?
Self concept
49
This means you have potential for growth in a supportive environment
Personal growth
50
According to _______, everybody is born with the innate desire to actualize themselves. This desire is our most basic fuel and guides our direction in life.
a. Charles Darwin
b. Abraham Maslow
c. Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers - according to him it's not only the person themselves that impacts if they can self-actualize or nor- their environment is important too.
51
Carl Rogers claim we have two basic innate drives.((basic human needs) What are these?
1. Need for self-actualization
2. Need for positive regard
52
This positive regard is when others like us and they respect us with no strings attached.
Ex: parents accepting you when you tell them you want to be an artist even though they want you to be a doctor.
" I like you, I care about you just the way you are"
Unconditional positive regard
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This positive regard has conditions. Acceptance by others only when you're meeting their expectations.
Ex: I will like you and respect you but only when you're successful.
Conditional positive regard
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What is the result of an unconditional positive regard?
Self-actualization
55
What is the result of a conditional positive regard?
Self-discrepancies
56
These theories focus on how experiences in the environment shape the child; behaviour is shaped by processes of classical and operant conditioning.
Key theorists are PAVLOV, WATSON, and SKINNER
Learning/Behavioural Theories
57
What are the focus of Pavlov and Watson's classical conditioning?
Observable behaviour and outside environmental stimuli
58
Behaviour is result of continuing exposure to specific environmental factors; developmental change is quantitative.
This is how development proceeds in ______
Classical conditioning
59
This is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response.
Ex experiment: Exposing dog to stimulus
Classical conditioning
60
He took Pavlov's research a step further by showing that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in humans.
He argued that by effectively controlling a peron's environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behaviour.
a. Charles Darwin
b. John Watson
c. Erik Erikson
John Watson
61
The little Albert experiment is an example of Watson's _______? where it demonstated that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in humans.
This experiment showed that phobias can develop through ________.
Classical conditioning
62
He claimed that people operate on their environment to bring about a desired state of affairs.
a. B.F. Skinner
b. James Watson
c. Charles Darwin
B.F Skinner
63
In this type of conditioning by B.F Skinner, it focuses on observable behaviour and outside environmental stimuli.
How development proceeds: voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by association with negative or positive consequences.
Operant Conditioning
64
____ increases the probability of some behaviour being repeated and it does that by delivering or removing a stimulus immediately after behaviour.
It happens when a behaviour is repeated because of the consequence that followed it.
Reinforcement
65
This type of reinforcement involves adding a "pleasant" consequence to an action to increase the probability of the action being continued.
Ex: a man gives his daughter praise for doing her homework.
praise= reinforcing stimulus
homework= behaviour
Positive reinforcement
66
This type of reinforcement involves the removal of something "unpleasant" and results in the increase of the probability of the action occurring again.
Ex: Evelyn does the dishes (behaviour) in order to stop her mom from nagging her (aversive stimulus)
Negative reinforcement
67
_____ decreases the probability that the behaviour will be repeated.
When a behaviour stops/decreases because of a consequence, ____ has occurred.
Punishment
68
true or false
When somebody performs a behavior that's usually punished but it's not punished this time, that lack of punishment can promote the behaviour.
TRUE
69
This type of punishment involves adding something "unpleasant" such as scolding.
This works by presenting an aversive consequence after an undesired behaviour is exhibited and this makes the behaviour less likely to happen in the future.
Ex: A child swears in class (behaviour) and the teacher reprimands the student (aversive stimulus)
Positive punishment
70
This type of punishment involves the removal of something "pleasant" such as taking away TV privileges.
Ex: a child hits their peer (behaviour) and is removed from their favourite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed)
Negative punishment
71
_____ is a decrease in behaviour after repeated non-reinforcement (e.g. ignoring it)
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Extinction
72
In _______ behavious is reinforced sometimes but not others- is more common in the real world.
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Partial reinforcement
73
______ happens when an individual learns a complex behaviour through the reinforcement of intermediate steps.
Each steps includes reinforcement, such as praise from a parent.
When a child masters a step, the reinforcement for the previous step is discontinued.
a. Extinction
b. Partial reinforcement
c. Shaping
Shaping
74
These theories emphasizes mental aspects of development, such as logic and memory.
Key theorists are PIAGET, BANDURA, VYGOTSKY, INFORMATION PROCESSING
Cognitive theories
75
He is the father of cognitive development.
he wanted to understand how the adult mind develops.
he observed, tested, questioned children by observing children's play. he takes notes and extract clues about how they think about the world.
he noticed that young children provide qualitatively different answers than older children and he presented children with tasks to solve and question them about their reasons for the solutions taht they offered on these tasks (ex: number conservation)
Jean Piaget
76
What are the 3 key features of Jean Piaget's cognitive theory?
1. Assimilation
2. Accommodation
3. Equilibration
77
Piaget's _________ focus on processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
78
_____ is a category of knowledge, that a child puts together to understand the world. It may represent behaviours, objects, events, or concepts.
When a children play and explore, they/re acting on objects and they're developing this mental representation.
Ex: child developing a ____ of a bubble.
Scheme
79
Piaget believes that humans create their own understanding of the world. He believed that learning is caused by a blend of two processes: __________ and ___________
Assimilation and Accommodation
80
_______ is less mentally challenging than accommodation. Children transform incoming information so that it fits within their existing thinking.
A child uses preexisting schemes to understand a new object or situation
Ex: by calling the picture of COVID-19 virus a bubble.
Assimilation
81
_________ is where children adapt their thinking to incoming information.
A child adapts preexisting scheme to fit a new experience or object. The child creates a new scheme of virus.
Accommodation
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______ is the process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create schemes that fit the environment- we learn what works and what does not work in particular situations.
This motivates a child to continue through the stages of cognitive development.
Equilibration
83
When a child experiences assimilation, their world view is inaccurate. They're in a state of disequilibrium. This motivates the child to accommodate new info. to reach a state of _____
equilibrium
84
Piaget suggested that equilibration takes 3 phases:
1. The children are satisfied with their scheme and therefore in a state of equilibrium.
Ex: the child calls the CPVID-19 virus photo a bubble and the kid is okay with that but the mom says "no it's not a bubble, it's a virus" and the child becomes aware that their thinking is incorrect and now the child is in the state of:
2. Disequilibrium- experiencing cognitive conflict
3. Child develops a more sophisticated way of thinking and calls the photo of a COVID-19 virus a "virus" and in doing so, reaches a more stable state of equilibrium.
85
What are Piaget's 4 stages of Cognitive Development?
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 yrs)
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs)
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs)
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)
86
This cognitive development stage is where the baby understands the world through er senses and her motor actions; she begins to use simple symbols, such as single words and pretend play, near the end of this period
Sensorimotor stage
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This cognitive development stage is where the child's logic takes a great leap forward with the development of new internal operations, such as conversation and class inclusion, but is still tied to the known world; by the end of the period, he can reason about simple "what if" questions.
Concrete operational stage
88
This cognitive development stage, the child can use symbols both to think and to communicate; he develops the abilities to take others' points of view, classify objects, and use simple logic by the end of this stage.
Preoperational Stage
89
This cognitive development stage, the child begins to manipulate ideas as well as objects; she thinks hypothetically and, by adulthood, can easily manage a variety of "what if" questions; she greatly improves her ability to organize ideas and objects mentally.
Formal operational stage
90
In __________ the focus is primarily on thinking and memory.
Information enters the mind but the input is transformed by mental programs and is used to perform actions and that is the output.
Information Processing
91
_______ approaches seek to identify the ways that individuals take in information, use information, and store information.
Information Processing
92
In _______, you organize information to be stores in memory
Encoding
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____ refers to keeping information
Storage
94
_____ refers to getting information out of memory
Retrieval
95
Three types of memory in information processing
1. Sensory memory- sensory information becomes sensory memory
2. Short-term memory (working memory) - component where info. is processed
3. Long-term memory- component where info. is permanently stored
96
The ________ are theories that expand on Piaget's theory rather than contradict it.
They assume that cognitive growth is more QUANTITATIVE than qualitative. They suggested as children develop, they're better able to control their mental processing and they're better able to change the strategies that they choose to process info.
Neo Piagetian
97
This approaches on the forefront to cutting edge research that have identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders like Alzheimer's disease.
What develops: focus on cognitive development through lens of brain
Approach considers internal, mental processes, but focuses specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behaviour.
Cognitive Neuroscience
98
_________ neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity
Cognitive
99
He focused on the role of social interaction.
He created the sociocultural theory and argued that social learning shapes the development of cognitive competence.
Argued that children's understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children.
a. Lev Vygotsky
b. Charles Darwin
c. Erik Erikson
Lev Vygotsky
100
________ signifies tasks that are too hard for the child to do alone, but that he can manage with guidance.
Zone of proximal development
101
A method in which assistance by more knowledgeable others is aimed slightly above what a child can do on his/her own creating an environment that actually enhances children's learning.
As the child becomes more competent, supports are gradually removed and the child takes over.
Scaffolding
102
He said that learning does not always require reinforcement.
Sometimes we learn from watching others. (Observational learning/Modelling)
a. Lev Vygotsky
b. Albert Bandura
c. Charles Darwin
Albert Bandura
103
This theory by Bandura suggests that a certain amount of learning is in the form of ___________ which is learning by observing the behaviour of other people so that the other person that you're observing would be called a model.
This theory has come to predominate over simply assuming learning or development happens just from classical and operant conditioning.
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
104
How does development proceeds in social cognitive learning theory?
Through imitation, observational learning/modelling
Observer has to pay attention to the model's behaviour, observer must successfully recall the behaviour and behaviour must be reproduced accurately and the observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behaviour.
105
In _________ human development is based on: Personal factors, behavioural factors, and environmental factors.
Reciprocal determinism
106
_______ is the belief in one's own capacity to case an intended event to occur or to perform a task.
people who believe that they can perform a task are said to have a high _____ about the task.
Self-efficacy
107
What is one best way to get people to have a higher self-efficacy?
Give a person mastery experiences so that they can try the behaviour and actually succeed at it.
108
The interaction between the person and their behaviour is influenced by their _____ and _____.
thoughts and actions
109
The interaction between the person and the environment involves ______ and ______ developed and modified by social influences.
beliefs and cognitive competencies
110
The interaction between the environment and their behaviour involves the person's _____ determining their environment, which in turn, affects their behaviour.
behaviour
111
The view that personal (biophysical, spiritual, behavioural, intellectual, emotional) and external (physical environment, social & cultural influences) factors form a dynamic integrated system.
Systems approach
112
the 'whole' is primarily and is often greater than the sum of its parts; A person develops in relation to changes in any part of the whole dynamic system (personal and external)
Holism
113
___ is the result of adaptive adjustment
Wellness
114
He proposed the Bioecological Theory, which states different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals.
he explains development in terms of the relationships between people and their environment over the passage of time.
a. Bronfenbrenner
b. Charles Darwin
c. Erik Erikson
Bronfenbrenner
115
Ecological perspective says that development can be affected by influences happening at multiple levels.
This is Bronfenbrenner's _______ theory
Bioecological
116
This is the innermost circle in the bioecological theory. It is the child's genetic make-up and developmental stage
Individual context
117
This is also called immediate context.
Includes those variables to which people are exposed directly, such as their families, schools, religious institutions, and neighbourhoods.
microsystem
118
_____ contains the interconnections between these components. - child home and school linking students to parents, students to teachers, ....
This connects various aspects of the microsystem
Mesosystem
119
this is also called socioeconomic context
It includes the institutions of the culture that affect a child's development indirectly
Ex: parent's workplace, local government, community, school, ...
Exosystem
120
Also called cultural context
Contains the values and beliefs of the culture in which a child is growing up.
Ex: Eastern vs. Western culture (larger cultural influences
Macrosystem
121
This approach looks at early childhood policies, practices, and interventions aimed specifically at health promotion and disease prevention.
Promotes advocacy across all levels of the socioeconomic and political spectrums.
Looks at early social and environmental experiences (ecology) and the genetic predisposition (biology) and how they influence the development of adaptive behaviours, learning capacities, lifelong physical and mental health and future economic productivity.
Ecobiodevelopmental Approach
122
What are the three principles to improve outcomes for Children?
1. Support responsive relationships
2. Strengthen core life skills
3. Reduce sources of stress
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