Lecture 1 Exam Flashcards
(189 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy is the study of:
A
Body Structures/Biological Structures
2
Q
Gross Anatomy
A
Study of large body structures that are visible to the naked eye
3
Q
Surface Anatomy
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Superficial anatomical markings, general form
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Q
Systematic Anatomy
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Studies of all structures in an organ system
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Q
Microscopic Anatomy
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Study of small structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye
6
Q
Cytology
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The study of individual cells and their internal structures called organelles
7
Q
Histology
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The study of tissues, groups of specialized cells
8
Q
Physiology
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The study of function and how the body works
9
Q
Hemeostasis
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State of balance in which the body’s internal environment remains relatively stable despite changes in the internal and external environment
10
Q
Homeostatic control mechanisms involve:
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- )Variable
- )Stimulus
- )Sensor (Receptor)
- )Control
- )Effector
- )Negative Feedback
- )Positive Feedback
11
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the:Variable
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The Factor being regulated
12
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Stimulus
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Produces a change in the variable
13
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Sensor (Receptor)
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It monitors the environment and detects changes
14
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Control
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Analyzes input from receptor and determines output to effector
15
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Effector
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Cell or organ that carries out a response to regulate the variable by either depressing or enhancing the stimulus
16
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Negative Feedback
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The response of the effector counteracts the intensity of the original stimulus
17
Q
As one of the homeostatic control mechanisms, what is the: Positive Feeback
A
The effector response intensifies the original stimulus causing the variable to move further away from its normal limits.
>Usually Destabilizing
>Examples: childbirth and blood clotting
18
Q
What are the levels of organization- from smallest and simplest to largest and most complex
A
- )Chemical level
- ) Cellular Level
- ) Tissue Level
- ) Organ Level
- ) Organ System
- ) Organism Level
19
Q
What are the 11 Organ Systems
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Integumentary System-Skin/Hair
Skeletal System- Bones
Muscular System-Muscles and Tendons
Nervous System- Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Endocrine System-Endocrine Glands
Cardiovascular System- Heart and Blood Vessels
Lymphatic/Immune System-Spleen, Lymph nodes
Respiratory System- Lungs, trachea, larynx, pharynx
Digestive System- Oral cavity, salivary glands, stomach
Urinary System- Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Uretha
M/F Reproductive System- Penis, Vagina
20
Q
Right Upper Quadrant
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Right lobe of liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of the intestines
21
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Left Upper Quadrant
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Left lobe of liver, left kidney, spleen, stomach, pancreas, portions of the intestines
22
Q
Right Lower Quadrant
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Portions of Intestines (including cecum and appendix), right ureter, right ovary for women, right spermatic cord for men
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Q
Left Lower Quadrant
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Portions of the intestines, left ureter, left ovary for women, left spermatic cord in men
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Q
Umbilical Region
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Center most Region: portions of stomach and intestines
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Epigastric Region
Superior to the umbilical region: most of the liver and stomach
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Hypogastric Region
Inferior to the umbilical region: Urinary bladder, portions of intestines (including appendix), pubic symphysis, uterus and ovaries in women, prostate in men
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Tissue
A group of cells found together in the body
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What are the four primary tissues of the body?
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
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Epithelial Tissue
Lines body surfaces and forms glands
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Apical Surface of epithelial tissue
(unattached) faces exterior of a lumen (space in the body)
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Basal Surface of epithelial tissue
(attached) Anchored to extracellular fibers
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Does epithelial tissue contain blood vessels?
No.
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Connective Tissue
Supports other tissue
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Extracellular Matrix
Network of protein fibers surrounding cells in CT
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Ground Substance
Extracellular material that varies in consistency from thin liquid, viscous liquid, gel, or solid
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Three main categories of CT?
CT Proper: Stoma of soft organs, tendons, and adipose
Supporting CT: Bones and Cartilage
Fluid CT: Lymph and blood
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What are the major CT cell types? (6)
```
Fibrocytes
Adipocyte
Erythrocyte
Leukocyte
Osteocyte
Chondrocyte
```
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Fibrocytes
Mature cells that maintain the matrix of CT proper
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Adiposcyte
Store fat in CT proper
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Erythrocyte
Red Blood Cells- Transport oxygen in blood
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Leukocyte
White Blood Cells- Defend against infection
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Osteocyte
Mature Cells that maintain the matrix of bone
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Chondrocyte
Mature Cells that maintain the matirx of cartilage
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Muscle Tissue
Contacts to produce motion
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Three main muscle types?
Cardiac-Connected to bones through tendons
Smooth- Lines hollow organs
Cardiac- Forms walls of heart
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Nervous Tissue
Rapidly transmits and processes information
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Where is nervous tissue found
Found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves
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What does nervous tissue contain
It contains specialized cells called neurons and neuroglia
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Membrane
A continuous flat multi-cellular sheet that covers or lines a body part
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What are two major types of membranes?
Epithelial membranes- made of both epithelial and CT's
| Synovial Membranes- lines inner surface of joint cavities
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Cutaneous membranes
(Skin) Cover the external surfaces of the body
| *Keratinized Stratified Epithelium
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Mucous Membranes
Line cavities that open to the exterior
>Moist Membrane
>Respiratory, digestive, urinary
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Serous Membranes
Line Ventral Cavities that are closed to the exterior
Examples:
Pleura-surrounding the lungs
Pericardium-Surrounding the heart
Peritoneum- lines abdominal cavity and abdominal organs
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Pleura
Surrounds the lungs
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Pericardium
Surrounds the heart
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Peritoneum
Lines abdominal cavity and abdominal organs
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What is the process of tissue healing after a wound?
```
Hemostasis
Inflammation
Granulation
Remodeling
Regeneration OR Fibrosis
```
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Hemostasis
Clotting (Coagulation) reduces blood loss from damaged blood vessels
>A network of fibrin protein traps blood cells and binds the edges together
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Inflamation
Response of the body to injury works to increase the number of leukocytes in the tissue to defend against infection and remove damaged tissues
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Four Cardinal Signs of Inflamation
Redness, Heat, Swelling, Pain
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Granulation
Fibroblasts from the surrounding CT fill in the wound with a network of extracellular fibers and blood vessels grow through forming granulation tissue. Epithelial cells grow in from edges along the damaged surface
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Why does a injury site swell?
Blood Vessels become "leaky" allowing leukocytes and fluid to move from the blood into the interstitial tissue spaces resulting in swelling.
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Remodeling
Fibers of the CT are reorganized to maximize strength and minimize scarring
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Regeneration
Damaged tissue is replaced by the same type of tissue
| >Epithelia, CT proper, and bone regenerate easily; muscle and cartilage regenerates poorly
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Fribrosis
Damaged tissue is replaced by scar tissue (dense connective tissue)
>Cardiac Muscle and Nervous tissue does not regenerate and is replaced by scar tissue
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Simple
One layer
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Stratified
More than one layer
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Psuedostratified
One layer that looks like two
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Squamos
Flattened
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Cuboidal
Cube Shaped (W=H)
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Columnar
Column Shaped (taller than wide)
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Simple Squamos Epithelium
Single Layer of flat cells
>Function: Diffusion and secretion
>Alveoli, Serous Membranes that line body cavities, inner lining of blood vessels
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Single Layer of cube-like cells, central round nucleus
>Function: Secretion and absorption
>Ducts of glands, follicles of thyroid
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
Single Layer of tall cells, oval nuclei, often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus
>Function: Absorption and secretion
> Lines digestive tact and uterine tubes
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Stratified Squamos Epithelium
Many layers and the cells at the apical surface are flattened
>Function: Protect underlying tissue from abrasion
>skin, mouth, esophagus, rectum, vagina
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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Two or more layers of cuboidal cells
>Function: Secretion
>lines ducts of sweat glands
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Stratified columnar epithelium
Apical cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape
>Function: Secretion
>Ducts of salivary glands
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Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Single layer with columnar cells at apical surface but appears stratified without careful study to view that all the cells contact the basal lamina. Some cells are shorter than others, jumbled nuclei, contains goblet cells and cilia.
>Function: Secretion and propel substances(mucus) across cell surface
>Portions of respiratory tract (nasal cavity, larynx, and trachea)
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Transitional Epithelium
Numerous layers, basal cells appear cuboidal, apical cells very from dome shaped large cuboidal to wide large squamous
>Function: Stretches to permit distention of urinary organs
>Lines ureters, bladder, and portions of the kidney
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Gland
A simple organ in the human body which secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge into the surroundings.
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Endocrine Glands
>Expels secretions directly into surrounding tissue, diffuses into bloodstream
>Ductless
>Secretes hormones
>Ex. Thyroid, pituitary, adrenal glands
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Exocrine Glands
>Expels secretions onto a surface through a duct
| >Ex. Goblet Cells, sweat and oil glands in the skin
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Branching of ducts: Simple vs. Compound
Simple: Single, Unbranched duct
Compound: Branched duct
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Tubular
Elongated tube shape
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Alveolar
Expanded pocket or sac shape
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Tubuloalveolar
Combination of tube shape with an expanded end
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Arreolar Connective Tissue
Loose CT Proper
| >Supports epithelial tissues, space enables blood vessels to travel.
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Adipose CT
Loose CT Proper
| >Insulation, cushioning, fuel reserves
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Reticular CT
Loose CT proper, delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers
>Forms soft supportive skeleton for organs
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Dense Regular CT
CT Proper with numerous parallel collagen fibers
| >Resist unidirectional stress
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Dense Irregular CT
CT Proper with numerous collagen fibers running different directions
>Resists multidirectional stress
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Dense Elastic CT
Dense CT Proper
>Resists stress, stretches and recoils
>Location: Elastic arteries, such as the aorta
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What are the types of Supporting CT?
Hyaline Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage
Fibro Cartilage
Bone (osteous tissue)
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Hyaline Cartilage
Most Common type of cartilage, appears glassy and uniform
>Provide structure, yet flexible
>Nose, ends of bones, tracheal rings
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Elastic Cartilage
Similar to hyaline cartilage with numerous elastic fiber bundles
>Very flexible, able to tolerate repeated bending and maintain shape
>External ear, epiglottis
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Fibro Cartilage
Bundles of collagen surrounded by proteoglycans, chondrocytes
>Withstands heavy pressure and highly compressible
>Inter-vertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and menisci
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Bone (Osseous Tissue)
Bundles of densely packed collagen fibers forming plates and struts
>Hard tissue provides structure for body and protection of organs
>The skeleton
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Types of Fluid CT:
Blood: liquid that is colored red from numerous erythrocytes
Lymph: Clear liquid
>Drains extracellular fluid, transports materials
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All living organisms are composed of:
one or more cells
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Cells are the smallest:
Structural/Functional units of life
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Cells arise from:
Pre-existing cells
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Cell diversity
All cells vary in shape and functions but they all share general structures
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Plasma Membrane
Semipermeable barrier forming the outer border of a cell
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Cytoplasm
Contents of the cell including organelles and a liquid called cytosol
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Cytosol
Intracellular fluid, contains ions, proteins, and nutrients
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Organel
Specialized cellular structures that perform a function
| >Ex. A NUCLEUS- contains the genetic material (DNA) that functions as instructions for making proteins
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Longest Cells
>2 Meters: Sensory Neurons that extend from the tip of the toes to the brain stem
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Largest Cells
200 Micrometers: Ovum (Egg Cell)
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Smallest Cells
4-5 Micrometers: Granule neurons in cerebellum and sperm
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_________ Separates extracellular fluid from intracellular fluid
Barrier
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Selective Permeability
Controls what enters and exits the cell
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Cell Markers and Receptors
Cell recognition, binds hormones, cell communication
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Adhesion
Between other cell membranes or extracellular materials
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Phospholipid Bilayer
>Hydrophilic Heads- orient towards the extracellular and intracellular fluid
>Hydrophobic tails- orient inward, away from the fluid
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Proteins
Functions as receptors, enzymes, and channels
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Peripheral Membrane Proteins
On the inside or outside of the membrane
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Integral Membrane Proteins
Embedded in the membrane
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Channel Proteins
Allow Ions in/out of the cell
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Glycocalyx
Glycoproteins and glycolipids serve as biological markers for leukocytes of the immune system to recognize self vs. non-self
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Cholesterol
Stabilizes membrane
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Plasma Membrane Transport
Working cells must control the flow of materials between the intracellular fluid-within the cell and extracellular fluid-outside the cell
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Passive Transport
Movement of solutes across a membrane DOES NOT require the cell to spend energy in the for of ATP
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Facilitated Transport
Diffusion of water across a membrane. Water moves from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
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Active Transport
Requires ATP
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Solute Pumping
Proteins use ATP to transport solutes against concentration gradient
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Endocytosis
Moves materials from extracellular space into the interior of the cell
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Phagocytosis
Cell takes in a large particle
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Pinocytosis
Cell takes in sample of extracellular fluid and small particles
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Receptor mediated endocytosis
cell takes in particles with specific structures.
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Exocytosis
Moves materials from cell interior to the extracellular space
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Nucleus
Control Center of the cell, contains chromosomes made of chromain
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Chromatin
Strands of DNA
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Nuclear Envelope
Double Membrane separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm
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Nucleolus
Dark Stained Body, sites of ribosome production
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Central Dogma of Genetics
DNA-->messenger RNA--> Protein
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Transcription
Occurs in the nucleus the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for a gene are read and used to guide the synthesis of a messenger RNA copy of the gene with a corresponding nucleotide sequence
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Translation
Occurs at ribosome when sequence of messenger RNA is read and used to guide the synthesis of a protein
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Ribosomes
Small dark bodies made of protein and RNA
| >Site of Protein Synthesis
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Fluid Filled coiled tubules. Serves as a channel for transporting subtances within a cell
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Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes
| Manufactures all secreted proteins
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Smooth ER
Functions in lipid metabolism and cell signaling
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Golgi Apparatus
Stack of flat membranous sacs
| >Packages proteins for transport depending on their final destination
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Vesicles
Small membranous compartments bud off of the cell membrane, nucleus, ER and golgi apparatus
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Lysosomes
Specialized vesicles containing proteolytic digestive enzymes
>Digest Proteins for non-usable and damaged organelles
>Destroy bacteria and other foreign material within the cell
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Peroxisome
Specialized vesicles containing oxidase enzymes
>Detoxify harmful substances like alcohol and formaldehyde
>Break down free radicals (Highly reactive chemicals)
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Miochondria
Double membrane structures
>Infolding of inner membrane are called CRISTAE
>Inner fluid called the MATRIX
>"Powerhouse" of the cell provides ATP for energy
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Cytoskelton
Provides the cell with an internal framework, supports organelles, and facilitates intracellular motility.
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Microtubules
Hollow Tubes made of protein
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Microfilaments
Concentrated under the plasma membrane
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Intermediate Structure
Composed of proteins with high tensile strength
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Centrosome
Located near the nucleus, directs the formation of microtubules
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Centriules
Rod Shaped bodies composed of short microtubules and other proteins arranged in a cylindrical structure.
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Cilia
Whip like extensions that occurs on the free surface of the cell
>Move substances along cell surface
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Flagella
Similiar whip like extensions but much longer
| >Tail of a sperm cell
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Microvilli
Small finger like extensions that increase surface area
| >Found on epithelial cells lining the intestines
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Tight Junctions
Form an impermeable barrier between cells by interlocking proteins encircling the cell
>Found at the apical surface of epithelial cells
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Desmosomes
Anchor intermediate filaments of adjacent cells together
| >Prevent cells that are subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart
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Gap Junctions
Cells are connected by hollow cylinders
>Allow chemical communication between cells
>Found in smooth and cardiac muscle
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What are the functions of the integumentary sytsem?
Protection
Temperature
Sensation
Metabolism (Chemical Reactions)
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Epidermis
Superficial Keratinized stratified squamos epithelium facing the exterior of the body
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Dermis
Composed of CT deep to the epidermis that provides structural support and a route for blood vessels that provide nutritional support to the epidermis
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Papillary Layer
Most superficial layer of the dermis consists of areolar CT adjacent to epidermis
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Reticular Layer
Dense Irregular CT forming the majority of the dermis
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Hypodermis
Layer of adipose CT deep to the dermis
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Keratinocytes
Most Common cells in the epidermis and they produce intermediate filament protein keratin that provides strength to the epidermis and hels make keep a water resitant barrier
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Melanocyte
Cells that produce a brown pigment called malanin that absorbs UV radiation to protect from the damaging effects of the sun
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Langherhanis Cells
Type of Leaukocyte found in the epidermis where they can monitor the skin for infections
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Merkel Cells
Specialized neuroepithelial somatosensory receptor cells that detect changes in the shape of the skin that contribute to our sense of touch
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Stratum Basale
Basal layer, referring to the deepest part of the epidermis
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Malanocytes
Produce the brown pigment melanin
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Stratum Spinosum
Spiny layer and refers to the 8-10 layers of cells superficial to the stratum basale
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Stratum Granulosum
Granular layer is 3-4 cells thick containing keratinocytes that are becoming flattened and disintegrating their organelles and prepare to go through a programmed cell death
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Stratum Lucidum
Clear layer and it is a thin layer only a few cell thick that does not stain when prepared for light microscopy giving it a clear appearance.
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Stratum Corneaum
Horny Layer and refers to the superficial layer of dead keratinocytes filled with keratin and surrounded by glycolipids filling the extracellular space to create a waer resistant barrier
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Melanon
Produced by melanocytes fives the skin a brown color
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Hemaglobin
Red pigment found in erythrocytes.
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Cyanosis
The characteristic blue color of the skin that indicates lack of oxygen as occurs when a person is suffocating
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Biliruben
A breakdown product of hemoglobin
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Jaundice
A yellow pigmentation of the skin and whites of the eyes due to high biliruben levels
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Carotene
Give the skin an orange color. Can be converted to vitamin A
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Hair folicales
Small accessory organs that produce hair
182
Functions of the hair
Protection, sensory input, thermoregulation, and communication
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Pacinian Corpuscle
Found deep in the reticular layer of the dermis is another somatosensroy receptor that contributes to the sense of touch by detecting deep pressure and vibration
184
Meissner Corpuscle
A somatosensory receptor common in the skin on the tips of the fingers that are very sensitive to detect light touch.
185
Sebaceous Glands
Produce an oily secretion that protects and lubricates the hair and skin.
>Composed of Stratified cuboidal epithelium
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Sudoriferous Glands
(Sweat Glands) Coiled tubular glands that consist of stratified cuboidal epithelium that produces watery merocrine secretion to cool the body
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Eccrine Sweat Glands
All over body, more in palmar and plantar regions
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Approcrine Sweat Galnds
Located in the axilla, groin, face and nipples function at puberty made of stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue
189
Nails
Produced by epidermal tissues.
| >Functions: Protection, scratching, grasping small objects
