Lecture 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of the structure of the human body
Physiology
The study of body function
Anatomical terminology
Based on ancient Greek or Latin
Provides standard nomenclature worldwide
Subdisciplines of anatomy (3)
- Gross anatomy
- Surface anatomy
- Microscopic anatomy
Gross anatomy
Regional or systemic
Macroscopic
Regional is choice during dissection
Surface anatomy
Based on landmarks
Relevant clinically
Microscopic anatomy
Histology
Need aid to see
Cellular and subcellular levels
Developmental anatomy
Throughout life, through aging
Embryology
Subset of developmental anatomy
Structural changes from gametogenesis to birth
Pathological anatomy
Pathology
Any pathological changes
Microscopic, gross pathology
Functional morphology
Relating structure to function
Hierarchy of structural organization (6)
- Chemical
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
- Organismal
Regional terms
Axial region
Appendicular region
Axial region
Axis of body
Head, neck and trunk
Appendicular region
Appendages: upper and lower limbs
Standard directional terms
Used by professionals to describe location of one body part in relation to another
Anatomical position
A common visual reference point
Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the body
Superior
Cranial
Towards the head end or upper part of a structure or the body
Above
Inferior
Caudal
Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure of the body
Below
Medial
Toward or at the midline of the body, on the inner side of
Lateral
Way from the midline of the body, on the outer side of
Proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Distal
Farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Ipsilateral
On the same side
Contralateral
On the opposite side
Anterior
Ventral
Towards the front of the body, in front of
Posterior
Dorsal
Towards or at the back of the body, behind
Superficial
External
Towards or at the body surface
Deep
Internal
Away from the body surface, more internal
Frontal plane
Coronal
Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse plane
Runs horizontally and divides body into superior and inferior parts
Sagittal planes
Are vertical and divide the body into right and left parts
Medial (midsagittal) plane
Parasagittal: no longer in midline
Human Body Plan (6)
- Tube-within-a-tube
- Bilateral symmetry
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Notochord and vertebrae
- Segmentation
- Pharyngeal pouches
Tube-within-a-tube
Digestive tract within outer tube
Bilateral symmetry
Midsagittal section gives two identical halves
Dorsal hollow nerve cord
In dorsal part of body
Brain and spinal cord and both hollow: hollow neural tubes
Notochord and vertebrae
Surround spinal cord
Notochord is embryonic structure that triggers off development of the brain (mostly gone in fully developed human)
Pharyngeal pouches
To do with pharynx
Parts of pharynx very similar between vertebrates
Slits are present in human embryos but disappear: middle ear cavity to throat
Dorsal body cavity (2)
Consists of:
- Cranial cavity
- Vertebral cavity
Ventral body cavity
Consists of:
- Thoracic cavity
- Abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity (2)
Divided into three parts
- Two lateral parts containing a lung surrounded by a pleural cavity
- Mediastium containing the heart surrounded by the pericardial sac, contains the pericardial cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity (2)
Divided into two parts
- Abdominal cavity
- Pelvic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Contains liver, stomach, kidneys and other organs
Pelvic cavity
Contains the bladder, some reproductive organs and rectum
Serous cavities
Slit like space lined by serous membrane
Parietal covers outer wall of cavity
Visceral covers visceral organs
Serous fluid
Produced by both layers of the serous membrane
Abdominal quadrants
Right upper and lower
Left upper and lower
Preparing human tissue for microscopy
Specimen is fixed (preserved) and sectioned
Specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical structures
Acid- blue, negatively charged dye molecules
Basic- pink, positively charged dye molecules
Light microscopy
Illuminates tissue with a beam of light
Electron microscopy
Uses beams of electrons
Details of cells inside
Scanning electron microscopy
Heavy metal salt stain
Deflects electrions in the beam to different extents
Use tissue as a whole, do not need sections
Artifacts
Minor distortions of preserved tissues
Not exactly like living tissues and organs
X-ray
Electromagnetic waves of a very short length
Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense structures
Not in 3D, structures are compressed (shadows)
Contrast X-rays
Barium (swallow, meal, meal follow through, enema)
Contrast medium
Allows tissues to be more prominent in X-ray
Mainly used to study digestive tract, does not cause any harm
Computed (axial) tomography (CT or CAT)
Successive X-rays arounda person’s full circumference (usually 12)
Series of transverse sections
Uses same radiation as X-rays
Computer translates into detailed picture of body
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
Contrast medium highlights vessel structure
Images taken before and after contrast medium injection
Computer subtracts before from after to identify blockage of arteries to heart wall and brain
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body
Cells that are more active will take up more of the isotope
Sonography
Ultrasound imaging: body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body’s tissues
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Produces high quality images of soft tissues
Distinguishes body tissues based on relative water content
Skeletal system
Protects and supports body organs
Provides a framework for muscles
Blood cells formed within bones
Stores minerals
Muscular system
Allows manipulation of environment Locomotion Facial expression Maintains posture Produces heat
Integumentary sytem
Forms external body covering
Protects deeper tissues from injury
Synthesizes VitD
Site of cutaneous receptors, sweat and oil glands
Cardiovascular system
Blood vessels transport blood
Blood carries oxygen and CO2, nutrients and wastes
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
Respiratory system
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
Removes CO2
Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in lungs
Digestive system
Breaks down food into absorbable units
Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
Urinary system
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance
Reproductive system
Male and female
Overall function to produce offspring
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
Nervous system
Fast-acting control system
Repsonds to internal and external changes
