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English Language > Language change theorists/theories > Flashcards

Language change theorists/theories Flashcards

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1
Q

What was Aitchisons theory surrounding how language change spreads?

A
  • S-curve model and diffusion
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2
Q

What did Aitchison say surrounding the S-curve model and diffusion?

A
  • It begins small and affects few words
  • There’s fluctuation between new and old change on words
  • The new form gradually overtakes the new one
  • When change has spread to a certain number of words, change spreads a lot faster before slacking off
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3
Q

What did Aitchison say about change?

A
  • It does not happen in isolated bursts
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4
Q

What did Denison say about S-curve models?

A
  • Most S-curves remain incomplete/never reach full saturation
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5
Q

What is Substratum theory?

A
  • Suggests that speakers learning a new language will learn it imperfectly and pass errors on to future generations
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6
Q

What is a superstrate?

A
  • European languages
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7
Q

What is a substrate?

A
  • Non-European languages
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8
Q

What happens to languages “below” the superstrate?

A
  • They come into the superstrate and change it (i.e features from Japanese coming into English)
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9
Q

What is borrowing?

A
  • When people borrow from other languages, but only vocabulary is really affected
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10
Q

What does it mean to incorporate vocab into the language? Provide an example

A
  • It means naturalising the borrowed word to make it seem part of the lexicon
  • i.e “restaurant” is French by spelling, but it is not said with a French accent
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11
Q

What was Charles Hockett’s theory?

A
  • Random fluctuation and cultural transmission
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12
Q

What is random fluctuation/cultural transmission?

A
  • How language spreads
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13
Q

What do errors mean with random fluctuation/cultural transmission?

A
  • Errors are passed onto other users, sometimes through technology
  • Errors have been adopted as acceptable features
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14
Q

What does Hockett argue surrounding change/chance?

A
  • Change is not driven by random chance, because if it was then the language world would be in chaos
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15
Q

What did B.A Neddar say about language and expression?

A
  • “language is a practical means of expressing meaning”
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16
Q

What did B.A Neddar say about language and beliefs?

A

“language is socially motivated to express our beliefs, cultures and communication needs”

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17
Q

What was Crystal’s beliefs about lang change?

A
  • Neutral opinion

- Change was inevitable/unpredictable

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18
Q

What was Crystal’s metaphor surrounding lang change?

A
  • comparison to “tides”
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19
Q

What was Halliday’s theory?

A
  • Functional theory
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20
Q

What did Halliday’s theory say?

A
  • Language changes because we need it to fit to our needs
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21
Q

What was Aitchison’s theory about metaphors?

A
  • Spoke about people’s anxieties about language change
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22
Q

What were Aitchison’s 3 metaphor examples? Explain them

A
  • Damp spoon syndrome = change is caused by sloppiness/laziness (i.e glottalstop)
  • Crumbling castle = language needs to be preserved, but there is no clear “golden age” for language
  • Infectious disease = “catch” change from others (i.e Americanisms), but picking up change is not a force we are powerless to resist
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23
Q

What do metaphors do to the audience?

A
  • Manipulates how the audience sees language change
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24
Q

What are the 11 neologisms? (ACAICA COBBE)

A
  • Affixing
  • Compounding
  • Acronyms
  • Initialisms
  • Conversion
  • Abbreviations
  • Coinage
  • Obsolete words
  • Back formation
  • Blending
  • Eponym
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25
Q

What is an initalism? Provide an example

A
  • Individual words spoken

- BBC, HIV, CD

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26
Q

What is affixing? Provide an example

A
  • Adding prefixes/suffixes

- i.e microwave, multimedia

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27
Q

What is compounding? Provide an example

A
  • Two seperate words combining to make a new one

- e.g blackbird, skylight

28
Q

What is an eponym? Provide an example

A
  • A person/thing, real/fake which is named after something else
  • e.g Adam’s apple, Achilles’ heel
29
Q

What is blending? Provide an example

A
  • Parts of words joining

- e.g stalker + fan = stan, motor + bicycle = motorbike

30
Q

What is an acronym? Provide an example

A
  • Words made into letters

- ASAP, LOL, OMG, LMK

31
Q

What is conversion/functional shift

A
  • Word class changes a word

- Google - Googled/to Google (noun to verb)

32
Q

What is an abbreviation?

A
  • Shortening of a word

- ad(vert) = advertisement

33
Q

What is an obsolete word?

A
  • No longer used/replaced for newer terms

- e.g “enow” became enough

34
Q

What is coinage?

A
  • A completely new term
35
Q

What is back formation? Provide an example

A
  • A noun is shortened to make a verb

- e.g edit = editor

36
Q

What are the 8 features of semantic change? (PEMBWINA)

A
  • Pejoration
  • Euphemisms
  • Metaphor
  • Broadening
  • Weakening
  • Idioms
  • Narrowing
  • Amelioration
37
Q

What is a metaphor? Provide an example

A
  • Words acquiring new meanings

- e.g language is war

38
Q

What is broadening? Provide an example

A
  • When a word becomes more general

- e.g “dog” used to refer to only big dogs

39
Q

What is narrowing? Provide an example

A
  • Word becomes less general

- e.g “meat” used to be all food, but now just means animal food

40
Q

What is amelioration? Provide an example

A
  • Word becomes more pleasant

- e.g “pretty” used to mean shy/cunning

41
Q

What is pejoration? Provide an example

A
  • Word becomes less pleasant

- e.g “silly” meant happy/blissful

42
Q

What is an example of an idiom?

A
  • e.g “under the weather”
43
Q

What is weakening? Provide an example

A
  • Loses its force

- e.g “soon” used to mean “immediately”

44
Q

What are euphemisms/political correctness?

A
  • The usage of words changing over time
45
Q

What did Miller and Swift create?

A
  • The Handbook of Non-Sexist writing
46
Q

What did Miller and Swift suggest? Provide an example

A
  • Suggested ways to boost gender equality, trying to use more gender-neutral terms
  • i.e using “them” when gender is unclear, replacing marked terms, etc
47
Q

What is the 4-step process in the standardisation of language?

A

1- Selection
2- Codification
3- Elaboration
4- Implementation

48
Q

What is selection? (standardisation) Provide an example

A
  • Language and variety is selected, usually a prestigious one
  • e.g Caxton chose to write in the London dialect
49
Q

What is codification? (standardisation) Provide an example

A
  • Establishment of norms of lexis, grammatical structures and spelling
  • e.g reformation of spelling system, making lang regular
50
Q

What is elaboration? (standardisation) Provide an example

A
  • The selected language is developed for a variety of purposes
  • e.g new words will follow these new rules
51
Q

What is implementation? (standardisation) Provide an example

A
  • New language must be given currency so people see the prestige in it
  • e.g making it available in texts for it to be mass produced to the many
52
Q

What did Harvey and Shalom explore?

A
  • P.C language
53
Q

What did Harvey and Shalom actually do?

A
  • Observed words that ca be categorised into technical, euphemistic and dysphemistic words
54
Q

What did Harvey and Shalom find?

A
  • In the hierarchy of dysphemistic words, those higher provoked a stronger reaction in people
  • e.g cigarette vs torch of freedom vs cancer stick
55
Q

What did Fairclough say?

A
  • P.C is not enough; society needs to change how we see minority groups and represent them more
56
Q

What did Cameron propose?

A
  • Verbal Hygiene theory
57
Q

What did Cameron’s theory say?

A
  • Suggests that PC language causes anxiety as it challenged majority power group’s assumptions
58
Q

What did Cameron herself say?

A

“In the mouths of sexists, language can always be sexist”

59
Q

What is the Sapir-Wharf hypothesis?

A
  • Language determinism
  • Looked at Native American tribe who did not have tense, argued that they did not have any perception of time, therefore language shapes thought
60
Q

Why is the Sapir-Wharf hypothesis discredited now?

A
  • Because only a single person was evaluated in the tribe
61
Q

What is another key example in language determinism?

A
  • If a word perjorates, it changes our thoughts about it
62
Q

What was Pinker’s theory called?

A
  • Euphemism treadmill
63
Q

What does Pinker’s theory argue?

A
  • Says that P.C terms will also perjorate and need to change over time
  • Conflicts language reflectionism
64
Q

What is language reflectionism?

A
  • Thoughts reflect language choice
65
Q

What are the 3 categories within political incorrectness?

A

1- Subtle (i.e policeman, mailman)
2- Offensive (i.e gay, bitch)
3- Blatant (i.e n-word, c-word)

66
Q

What may be two views of a prescriptivist about PC language?

A

For - describes/prescribes “correct” language

Against - could be seen as language change

67
Q

What is two needs of PC?

A
  • Shows intellectual efforts to allow, encourage and reflect social progress
  • Places down a theoretical foundation; language creates categories for thought, words create opportunities and boundaries for people

English Language (21 decks)

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