Language Change Over Time - Lexical And Semantic Change.

Question 1

How do we create new words for the English lexicon?

Answer 1

Borrowing them from other languages.
Adapt existing words (morphology)
Create completely new ones (neologism/coinage).

Question 2

Outline the inkhorn theory for borrowings.

Answer 2

16th - 17th century - renaissance writers expanded vocabulary through coinages, compounding/affiliation or borrowing from the classic languages e.g. Italian, Spanish and Latin.
Over exaggerated, flowery language used by one side.
Normal, structured language used by the other.

Question 3

Define an inkhorn term:

Answer 3

Any foreign borrowing into the English language that is considered unnecessary or overly pretentious.

Question 4

Outline some loan words having been incorporated into the English language.

Answer 4

Latin: bishop, sophisticated, imaginary.
Scandinavian: anger, sky, skill.

Question 5

Define a coinage/neologism.

Answer 5

The deliberate creation of a new word.

Question 6

Outline the different methods of coinage and neologism.

Answer 6

Borrowing/loaning words.
Eponym.
Proprietary names.

Question 7

Define an eponym.

Answer 7

The name of a person after whom something is names.

Question 8

Define a proprietary name.

Answer 8

The name given to a product by one organisation becomes the commonly used name for the same product.

Question 9

Define an abbreviation.

Answer 9

A shortened word or phrase.

Question 10

Outline the different types of abbreviations:

Answer 10

Acronym.
Initialism.
Clipping.

Question 11

Define morphology.

Answer 11

The study of the forms of words, in particular inflected forms.

Question 12

Define a morpheme.

Answer 12

A minimal unit of meaning.

Question 13

Outline the different factors of morphological change.

Answer 13

Affixation, usually in the form of:
     Prefixes. 
     Suffixes.
     Functional shift. 
     Compound. 
     Back formation. 
     Blend.

Question 14

Define a functional shift.

Answer 14

A word changes it’s class without adding a suffix.

Question 15

Define a back formation.

Answer 15

The removal of an imagined affix from an existing word.

Question 16

Outline when semantic change can occur.

Answer 16

Old meanings become forgotten over time.
In response to a new context for a particular word.
As current slang where a particular social group takes ownership of a word and changes it to suit.

Question 17

Outline the functional theory.

Answer 17

Language always changes and adapts the the needs of its users.
Changes in tech fuels the need for new words.
Words fall out of usage and are replaced with initialises e.g. vinyl to mp3.
Colloquialisms and slang manifests changes: creating new words/usages - discarding them as they strive for social identity/Group expression.

Question 18

Outline the theory of random fluctuation and cultural transmission.

Answer 18

Charles Hockett (1958) - puts significance on random errors and events for having an influence on language change and suggests that change occurs due to the unstable nature of language itself - changes occur to reflect the constant changing context of the language itself and its users.

Question 19

Outline the substratum theory:

Answer 19

Focuses on the influences of different language forms that can come into contact with English.
Mainly through the languages of non-native speakers or regional dialects.
‘Like’ came into British English through American television.
Idea that immigration had this effect - non native speakers bringing words in from their native tongue.
(Norman invasion 1066).
Can be said the British had this effect during the British empire - English words adopted into Hindi.
Words such as ‘juggernaut’ were borrowed into English.

Question 20

Outline the Sapir Whorf theory:

Answer 20

The particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality and views the world and that it is difficult or even impossible to think beyond it.

Question 21

Define amelioration.

Answer 21

A negative word takes on a positive meaning.

Question 22

Define pejoration.

Answer 22

A positive word takes on a negative connotation.

Question 23

Outline reflectionism.

Answer 23

Language reflects the society that produces it.

Question 24

Outline determinism:

Answer 24

Language determines the way we think and behave.

Question 25

Define neosemy .

Answer 25

The process whereby a new meaning develops for an existing word.

Question 26

Outline the different methods of neosemy.

Answer 26

Metaphor.
Euphemism.
Idiom.

Question 27

Define an idiom.

Answer 27

A speech form, or an expression that can’t be understood literally from the meanings of individual parts e.g. bull in a china shop.

Question 28

Outline changes from above or conscious changes.

Answer 28

Change that is usually initiated by those in a dominant social position or in a position of power - usually in line with standard or ‘correct’ forms of usage and linked to prestige forms of language.

Question 29

Outline changes from below or unconscious changes.

Answer 29

Usually driven by language users - developing or adapting language according to their own social need - often initially appealing in vernacular forms that may be introduced by any social class.

Question 30

Outline the different methods of semantic change.

Answer 30

Amelioration. 
Pejoration. 
Weakening. 
Narrowing. 
Broadening.

Question 31

Define weakening.

Answer 31

A word loses the strength of its original meaning.