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BIO > Hormonal communication > Flashcards

Hormonal communication Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the two types of glands?

A

Endocrine and exocrine

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2
Q

What is the key feature of exocrine glands?

A

They have ducts, which can carry secretions to specific locations.

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3
Q

What are some examples of exocrine glands?

A

Salivary glands, sweat glands, acinar in the pancreas.

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4
Q

What do endocrine glands do?

A

Produce and release hormones directly into blood capillaries. They are ductless glands and have a rich blood supply.

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5
Q

What is a hormone?

A

A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of specific organs or tissues.
They are released by endocrine glands directly into the blood and act as a chemical messenger.

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6
Q

What are the features and method of action of steroid hormones?

A

Steroid hormones are soluble in lipids, so bind to receptors on the nucleus of the target cell, switching a gene on/off.

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7
Q

What are the features and method of action of protein and peptide hormones?

A

Protein and peptide hormones are not soluble in lipids, so bind to receptors on the cell surface membrane. The hormone-receptor complex produces a series of changes in the cell.

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8
Q

How are hormones transported around the body?

A

Hormones are secreted when the endocrine gland is stimulated, the hormones move into capillaries running through the gland. The hormone is circulated around the body by mass flow through the blood stream to the target tissue. At the target tissue, the hormone diffuses out of the capillaries and stimulates a response.

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9
Q

What are key differences between hormonal and nervous communication?

A

Hormonal is slower but has a longer lasting response.
Hormones have a widespread response as they travel through the whole body, the nervous system has a more localised response.
Hormones may have a permanent, irreversible effect.

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10
Q

Where are adrenal glands located?

A

On the top of each kidney.

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11
Q

What kind of hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

Steroid hormones such as glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

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12
Q

What controls hormone production in the adrenal cortex?

A

The pituitary gland in the hypothalamus.

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13
Q

What hormones are released by the adrenal medulla?

A

Peptide hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline.

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14
Q

What controls hormone secretion by the adrenal medulla?

A

Hormones are released when the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated in a fight or flight response.

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15
Q

What do glucocorticoids regulate?

A

Metabolism, blood pressure, cardiovascular function and immune response.

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16
Q

What do mineralocorticoids regulate?

A

Salt/water concentration, helping to control blood pressure.

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17
Q

What affect does adrenaline have?

A

Increases heart rate, sends blood to muscles and brain.

Rapidly raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver.

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18
Q

What affect does noradrenaline have?

A

Increased heart rate.
Widening of pupils.
Narrowing of blood vessls in non-essential organs. (increases blood pressure and flow to the brain and muscles)

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19
Q

How does adrenaline act on hepatocytes?

A

Adrenaline binds to a cell surface receptor on the liver cell (adrenaline and receptor are complementary). This hormone-receptor complex activates the enzyme adenyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP which alters the 3D structure of enzymes in the cell, stimulating glycogenolysis.

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20
Q

What is the primary and secondary messenger in the mechanism of adrenaline action on hepatocytes?

A

Adrenaline is the primary messenger.

cAMP is the secondary messenger.

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21
Q

What is the name for the outermost layer of the adrenal gland?

A

The capsule

The medulla is the innermost section.

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22
Q

What comprises the endocrine portion of the pancreas?

A

Islets of langerhans, containing alpha-cells and beta-cells. As well as capillaries for the hormones to be secreted into.

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23
Q

What are the features of alpha cells?

A

Alpha cells are larger than beta cells and produce glucagon.

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24
Q

What do beta cells produce?

A

Insulin.

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25
Q

How do the islets of langerhans know how much of each hormone to secrete?

A

The alpha and beta cells detect blood glucose concentration in the capillaries passing through the pancreas.

26
Q

What comprises the exocrine portion of the pancreas?

A

Acinar and duct cells.

27
Q

What do acinar secrete?

A

Amylase.
Lipase.
Tripsynogen.

28
Q

What do duct cells secrete and why?

A

Sodium hydrogencarbonate to neutralise the acidity of the stomach contents. (in order to avoid the digestive enzymes denaturing)

29
Q

Where do pancreatic ducts take the secretions of the acinar and duct cells?

A

To the duodenum (small intestine)

30
Q

What happens when the blood has a high glucose concentration?

A

High concentration detected by beta-cells in the islets of langerhans of the pancreas.
Beta-cells secrete insulin into the blood.
Secretion of glucagon inhibited.
Insulin binds to cell surface receptors on liver and muscle cells, starting glycogenesis.
The glucose concentration falls.

31
Q

What happens when blood glucose concentration is too low?

A

Low concentration detected by alpha-cells in the islets of langerhans of the pancreas.
Alpha-cells secrete glucagon into the blood.
Insulin secretion inhibited
Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis in liver and muscle cells.
Also stimulates gluconeogenesis.
Glucose concentration rises.

32
Q

What is glucose?

A

A monosaccharide found in the blood.

33
Q

What is glycogen?

A

A polysaccharide formed of glucose monomers, for storage.

34
Q

What is glucagon?

A

A hormone released by alpha-cells in the pancreas that stimulates glycogenolysis in liver and muscle cells, as well as gluconeogenesis in the liver.

35
Q

What is insulin?

A

A hormone released by beta-cells in the pancreas the stimulates glycogenesis in liver and muscle cells.

36
Q

What is glycogenesis?

A

The formation of glycogen from glucose in the liver and muscle cells.

37
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

The formation of glucose, especially by the liver, from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids.

38
Q

What is glycogenolysis?

A

Biochemical breakdown of glycogen to glucose mainly in muscle cells and hepatocytes.

39
Q

What is the resting potential of a beta-cell and how is this membrane potential maintained?

A

-70mV

The cell membrane has K+ and Ca2+ ion channels, but the Ca2+ channels are normally closed as they are voltage-gated.

40
Q

What happens when glucose diffuses into a beta-cell due to high concentration in the blood?

A

Glucokinase converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate, which is broken down via glycolysis, generating ATP.

41
Q

What effect does the rise in ATP concentration in a beta cell have?

A

Causes K+ channels to close, causing the membrane to depolarise as the Ca2+ voltage-gated channels open.

42
Q

What effect does an influx of calcium ions have on a beta-cell?

A

Causes vesicle exocytosis, releasing insulin into the bloodstream.

43
Q

How does insulin affect target cells?

A

Insulin binds to membrane bound receptors, activating a secondary messenger which causes a number of changes within the cell.

44
Q

What is the effect of insulin on cells? (5)

A

More glucose channels on the cells plasma membrane.
More glycogenesis.
More glucose converted to fats.
Increased rate of respiration.
Stops cells using energy sources other than glucose.

45
Q

Which cells does glycogenesis occur in?

A

Hepatocytes and muscle fibres.

46
Q

Which cells does fat synthesis occur in?

A

Adipose tissue.

47
Q

What is diabetes mellitus?

A

A disease in which blood glucose concentration cannot be controlled effectively so after a meal the blood-glucose level is too high.

48
Q

What is hyperglycaemia?

A

When the blood glucose concentration is too high.

49
Q

What is hypoglycaemia?

A

When the blood glucose concentration is too low.

50
Q

Which type of diabetes is usually juvenile-onset and which is usually late-onset?

A

Type 1 is usually early-onset.

Type 2 is usually late-onset.

51
Q

What is the difference between how insulin is produced and used in the two types of diabetes?

A

In type 1, little or no insulin is produced as beta cells are unable to secrete it.
In type 2, cells do not respond correctly to insulin as the glycoprotein receptors on the cell surface membrane have lost their sensitivity to insulin.

52
Q

Which type of diabetes is often the result of an autoimmune response?

A

Type 1 diabetes, the immune system attacks beta-cells.

53
Q

Which type of diabetes is usually developed by people who are overweight?

A

Type 2 diabetes.

54
Q

Which type of diabetes develops more quickly and has more severe symptoms?

A

Type 1 diabetes.

55
Q

How is type 1 diabetes treated?

A

Insulin injections or stem cell treatment.

56
Q

How is type 2 diabetes treated?

A

Diet and exercise control.

57
Q

What are the advantages of stem cell treatment over transplant for type 1 diabetes?

A

Stem cells are more available (cheaper) and there is a reduced chance of rejection.

58
Q

What are the downsides to stem cell treatment?

A

Our ability to control stem cell growth and differentiation is still limited.

59
Q

What are the advantages of bacterial production of insulin over the use of insulin from pigs? (5)

A 
Cheaper and faster to manufacture.
Produces the exact same molecule as human insulin.
Lower risk of infection.
Lower risk of rejection.
Less moral objections.
60
Q

What is a potential risk of insulin injections, and how can these risks be minimised?

A

If too much insulin is injected, the patient may become hypoglycaemic and fall unconscious.
This can be avoided with careful monitoring and dose regulation.

61
Q

What kind of hormones are insulin and glucagon?

A

Peptide

BIO (33 decks)

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