History Tsraits Flashcards
1
Q
Issues with the old judicial system
A
- Huge variety of courts between which cases could be transferred therefore took a very long time
- Most judges had had no legal training and many were illiterate - enormous power in the hands of the court secretaries especially as evidence was written
- Police had great power to levy fines and they also were amenable to bribes
2
Q
Main features of the judicial reforms
A
- Simplified fewer courts - each province was to have its own court
- Judges paid a good salary - could not be removed from office which means more independence as they were able to provide verdicts that may displease the government
- Civil and criminal courts were open to the public and proceedings were recorded
- Introduction of defence lawyers (advocates) helped professionalise the courts
3
Q
Consequences of the judicial reforms
A
- Russians could get a fairer trial than before and there was a greater access to justice especially for the lower classes.
- The defendant had much more protection since court proceedings were public
- Less corruption or attempts by the police to pervert the course of justice
- Reforms challenged the political authority of the autocracy in a number of ways
- The idea of the rule of law transpired - the regime could no longer act in the arbitrary way it was accustomed to
- New freedom for lawyers meant the courtroom could become a space for challenges to the government
4
Q
Limitations to the judicial reforms
A
- The independent courts for peasants meant that as a class they were largely outside the mainstream judicial system, emphasising their lower status
- Some courts remained outside the system including church courts
- Government officials could not be tried in the system
- The bureaucracy did still intervene so trail by jury could not be guaranteed
5
Q
Main education reforms
A
- In the first decade of Alexander’s reign the number of pupils roughly doubled. Between 1856-1878 the number of primary schools increased from 8,000 to nearly 25,000
- Universities regained the right to govern themselves, choose their own professors and design their courses
- From 1865 - 1899 student numbers grew from around 4,000 to 16,000
6
Q
Consequences of education reforms
A
- More literate peasant population who took on new aspirations. Ability to read exposes peasants to new modern ideas from the west
- Higher education fostered an independent spirit and critical mind
- Students began to play a more significant part in society
- Created a new liberal culture
- Universities became secularised
- More people can think of ideas and publish them - students in academia can form more modernised ideas based on literature they can access
7
Q
Limitations to education reforms
A
- Reform had resulted in people questioning the political authority of the regime
- Women still couldn’t get degrees (could gain the knowledge)
8
Q
Key features of local government reforms
A
- The government introduced a measure of self-government at provincial and district level (Zemstva)
- Zemstva elected by nobles, town dwellers and peasants - democracy for a range of classes
9
Q
Consequences of local government reform
A
- The Zemstva brought improvement to the areas in which they operated (only in some areas suggesting improvement was not widespread) - hospitals and roads were built
- Members of the professional third element began to make demands for social reform and improvements in living conditions
- measure of self government introduced idea of democracy which challenges the autocracy - long term impact
10
Q
Limitations of local government reforms
A
- Zemstva only introduced in a limited number of provinces and they were slow to get going
- Zemstva dominated by the nobility who did not take their responsibilities seriously and took advantage of the situation to run affairs in their own interest
- Peasants resented paying the Zemstva tax which was proportionately higher on their land than an private estate
11
Q
How did censorship change under Alexander I
A
- Newspapers, books and periodicals no longer had to submit to prior censorship
- Newspapers could discuss government policy and editors were given more freedoms
- Huge growth in literature so public opinion started to take shape
12
Q
Consequences of censorship
A
- Led to a huge growth in the number of books and periodicals published - In 1855 104 periodicals published and by 1865 230 published
- Some journals were overtly radical and critical of the regime
- Obscurity can be interpreated in differeny ways
13
Q
Why were the military reforms introduced and when
A
1861-1881
- Russias defeat in the crimean war provided a strong impetus for military reform, Russia had to modernise it’s army.
- Expensive to maintain an army so large, in the 1860s the army reckoned to take up one third of the governments income
14
Q
Main changes of the military reforms
A
- Universal conscription was introduced: all social classes liable for military service age 21
- The standard length of military service was reduced to 15 years. From 1862 to 1870 the reserve increased from 210,000 to over 550,000.
- Officer training was radically improved - military colleges were established admitting recruits that were none nobles. Education was requires for admission
- Modern rifles and artillery were introduced but this was a slow process and technological progress in weaponry were superseded before they were fully introduced
15
Q
Consequences of the military reforms
A
- Resulted in a smaller and more professional army which was to some extent less brutal and class-ridden
- There was a significant saving in government expenditure as the standing army was smaller
