histology more Flashcards
delivery of oxygen
number of roads, how fast can trucks go, how full are the trucks?
cardiac output x hemo x %saturation
Pancytopenia?
decreased circulating elements of all types of formed elements in blood. EG - no WBCs, few RBCS -
Eosinophils?
Major Basic Protein MBP
Antibodies - GAMED
Who secretes? PLASMA -
Where do plasma cells come from ? B cells (make plasma and memory cells)
IgG IgA IgM IgE IgD
IgG most common
Monomer from plasma cells
70% in blood plasma
primary and secondary immune response - (most abundant action in 2nd)
on bacteria - if antigen - if igG binds can initiate
Complement system -> forms Membrane Attack Complex OR enhance Optimasation AND c3, c5 - enhance inflammation
if VIRUS - blocks binding points - NEUTRALIZATION
PRECIPITATE - can initiate opsonization, phagocytosis
IgG and passive immunity
can pass to baby from mother
IgA - mother milk
IgA? - Dimer if secreted - monomer if not - usually secreted in some type of fluid
plasma cells secrete -
Dimer - 2 breasts - mother’s milke
fluids w/in body
saliva, skin secretions (sweat), mucusal lining of GI, mother’s milk - passes to baby, urogenital
IgM - mismatch blood
Plasma primary secretors -
2 forms: Pentemer (J protein link) and Monomeric
PRIMARY immune response - if see elevated IgM - see infection happening (a little in 2nd)
Activates COMPLEMENT proteins -> MAC or opsinozation
Mismatched blood transfusion - helps w agglutination - Type II hyper sensitivity
10 antigen binding sites - trust
IgE - Allergic - Anaphalaxis - Worms
Monomer - from plasma
Respiratory tract mucusa
urogenital
lamina propria and lymphatic
Gi Tract - calls in Eisonphils (major basic protein and cat ionic peptide)
type 1 hyper sensitivities
mast cells - FCepsilon R 1 receptor - ALLERGEN,
signals to mast cells to produce histamines, prostoglandins, neutro?
leaky vessels, vasodilation, edema - restricts airways - NOT GOOD and contract smooth muscles - decreases airway size - effects breathing - ANAPhalxis - Type 1 hypersensitivity
IgD
Monomeric - plasma
safeword
Monomer on B cell surface - B cell receptor - in adaptive immunity
IgM - can it be a B cell receptor?
Yes, just like IgD
What is the difference between a B-cell receptor and an antibody “immunoglobulin”?
Antibodies or immunoglobulins are found as a secreted product of effector B cell (plasma cell) which is not bound to any surface membrane and can perform various effector functions. … B cell receptor is found on the membrane of the B lymphoctyes.
First antibody produced?
IgM - cytokines, etc calling them to work
Second antibody?
IgG (most common)
What is shift called?
Left shift?
Somatic hyper mutation
A “left shift” is a phrase used to note that there are a high number of young, immature white blood cells present. Most commonly, this means that there is an infection or inflammation present and the bone marrow is producing more WBCs and releasing them into the blood before they are fully mature.
2nd exposure to x bacteria?
IgG blows up! IgM being produced at low level during this phase
two types of immunity?
passive - active
passive - didn’t have to do anything to get it - or produce any antibodies -
Active
Two types of passive immunity?
Natural, artificial
Natural - IgG (placenta), IgA (milk) from mom
Artificial - snake bite ie - dr. gives me antibodies - antivenom
Immunoglobulous (antibodies) But I didn’t have to make them.
Active immunity?
Natural, Artificial
natural - I was exposed in past by the pathogen - strep throat
Artificial - vaccines, booster shots
your body has to work w/ it. Body produces antibodies against weak or dead pathogen
Structure of antibody?
chains -
Constant heavy chain -
constant light chain
variable heavy/light chain
connected - disulfide bonds
compliment proteins love to bind
Variable regions differ from antibody to antibody - cloud formation,
they can recombine, recreate to accommodate various types triangle, etc
two binding cites - that’s why ten binding cites
Actions of antibodies?
Neutralization Agglutination precipitation Opsonization Activation of NK cells
Neutralization?
antibody covers biologically active portion of microbe or toxin
Agglutination - cross link
Antibody cross-links cells - forming a clump
Precipitation - cross link
Crosslinks,
Precipitation reactions are based on the interaction of antibodies and antigens. They are based on two soluble reactants that come together to make one insoluble product, the precipitate. These reactions depend on the formation of lattices (cross-links) when antigen and antibody exist in optimal proportions
Opsonization, C3b and C4b,
or enhanced attachment, refers to the antibody molecules IgG and IgE, the complement proteins C3b and C4b, and other opsonins attaching antigens to phagocytes. The Fab portions of the antibody IgG react with epitopes of the antigen.
Activation of NK cells
Cytokines play a crucial role in NK cell activation. … NK cells are activated in response to interferons or macrophage-derived cytokines. They serve to contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response generates antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that can clear the infection.
What is the main function of natural killer cells?
Natural killer cells (or NK cells) are cytotoxic lymphocytes that are critical to the innate immune system. NK cells can function as an interface to the adaptive immune response. NK cells rapidly respond to virally infected cells and tumor formation in the absence of antibodies and MHC.
FC portion of antibodies - TAIL
FUK - tail think of it that way -
The tail goes into the cell surface
The fragment crystallizable region (Fc region) is the tail region of an antibody that interacts with cell surface receptors called Fc receptors and some proteins of the complement system. This property allows antibodies to activate the immune system. … The Fc regions of IgGs bear a highly conserved N-glycosylation site.
Do complement proteins and surface receptors on many leukocytes bind?
yes, producing active complement - more effecient phagocytosis (opsonization) and NK activation
What does aggultination do?
creates easier removal
Cytokines?
small, soluble secreted proteins - that enable cells to communicate
thereby initiating, perpetuating and downregulating immune response
What are chemokines?
cytokines causing chemotaxis
Do cytokines increate mitotic activity< If so, with what, where?
yes - certain leukocytes, locally and in bone marrow
Do cytokines stimulate or suppress lymyphocyte activity in adaptive immunity?
Both - INTERleukins - thought to be produced by and to target leukocytes
Do cytokines stimulate phagocytosis or directed cell killing by innate immune cells?
yes.
Cytokine redundancy?
many different cytokines can perform the same jobs
cytokin pleiotropy ?
single cytokine can perform many functions
cytokines - autocrine v. paracrine manner?
Cell TARGETS ITSELF
autocrine- act on itself -
paracrine? act on nearby cells
Cytokines and cascades?
Cytokines are often produced in cascades - its target cell produces more cytokines
synergistic vs antagoistic cytokine action?
IL 10 vs. 12 (suppress vs. promotes cell mediated immunity)
IL3 + 6
IL4 vs. IL10
Thymus - how protect developing T cells?
blood - thymus barrier - capillary wall, CT, basement lamina and cytoplasm
divisions of lymph node?
outer cortical,
most of nodules and germinal centers - B lymph here ~
inner (paracortical) - T lymph
, and medullary
Do lymph nodes have dendritic cells?
yes, - they are antigen presenting
Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells derived from bone marrow precursors and form a widely distributed cellular system throughout the body. DCs exert immune-surveillance for exogenous and endogenous antigens and the later activation of naive T lymphocytes giving rise to various immunological responses.
Where do dendritic cells come from?
Dendritic cells are derived from hematopoietic bone marrow progenitor cells. These progenitor cells initially transform into immature dendritic cells. These cells are characterized by high endocytic activity and low T-cell activation potential.
What type of cell are dendritic cells?
Dendritic cells are a type of antigen-presenting cell (APC) that form an important role in the adaptive immune system. The main function of dendritic cells is to present antigens and the cells are therefore sometimes referred to as “professional” APCs.
Are dendritic cells in blood?
Dendritic cells are present in those tissues that are in contact with the external environment, such as the skin (where there is a specialized dendritic cell type called the Langerhans cell) and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. They can also be found in an immature state in the blood.
Where do mast cells come from?
Mast cells derive from the bone marrow but unlike other white blood cells, mast cells are released into the blood as mast cell progenitors and do not fully mature until they are recruited into the tissue where they undergo their terminal differentiation.
Where are mast cells found in the human body?
Mast cells are located in connective tissue, including the skin, the linings of the stomach and intestine, and other sites. They play an important role in helping defend these tissues from disease.
Are mast cells found in blood?
Mast cells are not normally found in blood. They develop in tissues from precursor cells produced in the bone marrow.
What triggers mast cells?
What is an allergy?
Mast cells are allergy cells responsible for immediate allergic reactions. They cause allergic symptoms by releasing products called “mediators” stored inside them or made by them. … Mast cells can also be activated by other substances, such as medications, infections, insect or reptile venoms.
What is an allergy? a damaging immune response by the body to a substance, especially pollen, fur, a particular food, or dust, to which it has become hypersensitive.
Antigen-Presenting Cell ?
A type of immune cell that enables a T lymphocyte (T cell) to recognize an antigen and mount an immune response against the antigen. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) include macrophages, dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes (B cells).
What are the 3 antigen presenting cells?
The immune system contains three types of antigen-presenting cells, i.e., macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells.
What is the function of antigen presenting cells APCs?
An antigen-presenting cell (APC) is an immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection. When a pathogen is detected, these APCs will phagocytose the pathogen and digest it to form many different fragments of the antigen.
What are antigen presenting cells and why are they important?
Antigen-presenting cells are vital for effective adaptive immune response, as the functioning of both cytotoxic and helper T cells is dependent on APCs. Antigen presentation allows for specificity of adaptive immunity and can contribute to immune responses against both intracellular and extracellular pathogens.
Are natural killer cells antigen presenting cells? NO
In contrast to NKT cells, NK cells do not express T-cell antigen receptors (TCR) or pan T marker CD3 or surface immunoglobulins (Ig) B cell receptors, but they usually express the surface markers CD16 (FcγRIII) and CD57 in humans, NK1.
Where are Natural Killer cells made?
NK cells are known to differentiate and mature in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and thymus, where they then enter into the circulation.
white pulp of spleen?
White pulp is a histological designation for regions of the spleen (named because it appears whiter than the surrounding red pulp on gross section), that encompasses approximately 25% of splenic tissue. White pulp consists entirely of lymphoid tissue.
What is the difference between white pulp and red pulp?
The Cords of Billroth
The spleen contains two main types of tissue - white pulp and red pulp. White pulp is material which is part of the immune system (lymphatic tissue) mainly made up of white blood cells. Red pulp is made up of blood-filled cavities (venous sinuses) and splenic cords. The Cords of Billroth
What tissues make up the spleen?
The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the body. Surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, which extends inward to divide the organ into lobules, the spleen consists of two types of tissue called white pulp and red pulp. The white pulp is lymphatic tissue consisting mainly of lymphocytes around arteries.
What are the 3 -4 functions of the spleen?
Clearance of microorganisms and particulate antigens from the blood stream.
Synthesis of immunoglobulin G (IgG), properdin (an essential component of the alternate pathway of complement activation), and tuftsin (an immunostimulatory tetrapeptide)
Removal of abnormal red blood cells (RBCs)
What does white pulp do in the spleen?
Very important role in the normal immune response to infection. Antigen presenting cells may enter the white pulp, resulting in activation of the T-lymphocytes stored there.
What does red pulp of spleen do?
Removal of old, damaged and dead red blood cells along with antigens and microorganisms – the venous sinuses have gaps in the endothelial lining which allows normal cells to pass through, abnormal cells remain in the cords and are phagocytosed by macrophages.
What happens in the red pulp of the spleen?
Composed of connective tissue known also as the cords of Billroth and many splenic sinusoids that are engorged with blood, giving it a red color. Its primary function is to filter the blood of antigens, microorganisms, and defective or worn-out red blood cells.
Are T cells white blood cells?
T cell, also called T lymphocyte, type of leukocyte (white blood cell) that is an essential part of the immune system. T cells are one of two primary types of lymphocytes—B cells being the second type—that determine the specificity of immune response to antigens (foreign substances) in the body.
can the spleen make white or red Blood cells?
The spleen also stores red blood cells, platelets, and infection-fighting white blood cells. The spleen plays an important role in your immune system response. When it detects bacteria, viruses, or other germs in your blood, it produces white blood cells, called lymphocytes, to fight off these infections.
B cells mature in the bone marrow or in the lymph node. Bone Marrow: Mature B cells express antibodies on their surface, which are specific for a particular antigen.
function, number of lymph nodes
filter lymph
maintain/produce B cells
house T cells
400 - 450 - in series, at root of limbs, neck, retroperitoneum, mediastinum
structure of lymph node
capsule, parenchyma divided into cortex and medulla
capsule - collagenous, surrounded by adipose
convex but for indentation called HILUM
Hilum role in lymph?
efferent lymph vessels leave node, and blood vessels enter
how do afferent lymph vessels enter?
convex surface of capsule to open into subcapsular lymph sinus
retinaculum of lymph?
delicate meshwork - fibers and cells -
cells secrte fiber which form mesh
two zones of cortex of lymph?
outer - under capsule
loose lymphoid tissue under capsule “subcapsular sinus”
composed of loose network of reticular cells and fibers
Lymph w/ antigens, lymphocytes and APCs circulate in sinuses once enter via afferent system
also in space - T cells, reticular macrophages and APCS also present
Lymphoid follicle?
prolif B cells or lymphoblasts
mantle and germinal center containing
prolif B cells or lymphoblasts
resident follicular dendritic cells (FDCs)
migrating dendritic cells -macrophages
supporting reticular cells - producing TYPE III collagen
primary vs. secondary lymphoid follicle?
primary lacks mantle and germinal center
secondary has both- develops in response to antigen stimulation
Primary splenic follicles are located eccentrically in PALS and are primarily composed of B lymphocytes. When exposed to antigen, the splenic lymphoid follicles develop germinal centers
Where are B cells and T cells in follicles of spleen?
B are in follicles
T are in interfollicular areas
follicular dendritic cells? FDCs
branched cells, forming network w/in follicle
resident vs migrating dendritic cells?
Resident - B cell interaction
migrating - T cell interaction
resident FDCs come from mesenchyme - not bone marrow -
live at edge of germinal centers - interact w/ mature B cells (migrating dendritic work w/ T CELLS)
what do FDCs do?
trap antigens bound to Immunoglobulins or complement proteins on surface for recognition by B cells
interaction of Mature B cells with FDCs?
rescues B cell from apoptosis - displaying antigen that complements a high - affinity surface immunoglobulin
What B cells apoptosise? DIE?
Only if low affinity surface immunoglobulin
macrophages phagocytose apoptotic b cells
What is antibody affinity?
Antibody affinity refers to the strength with which the epitope binds to an individual paratope (antigen-binding site) on the antibody. High affinity antibodies bind quickly to the antigen, permit greater sensitivity in assays and maintain this bond more readily under difficult conditions.
Why does IgG have higher affinity than IgM?
Due to the affinity maturation and class switching processes, IgG and IgA antibodies typically have substantially higher affinities than IgM antibodies [18,19]. … Unlike protein antigen, monovalent interactions between a single binding site of an antibody and a single glycan are generally weak.
cortex and paracortex?
intermediate or radial sinuses communicate with subcapusular sinuses through spaces similar to those in medulla - lines simple squamous
Inner cortex or paracortical region?
no precise boundaries - houses CD4 + helper T cells and high endothelial venules
What do CD4 + helper T cells do together?
interact w B cells to induce their proliferation and differentiation when exposed to specific antigen (adaptive immune response)
High endothelial venules? PEYER patches
HEVs - located in inner or deep cortex (paracortex) are sites of entry of most B and T cells - by homing mechanism
specialized cells - include Peyer patches in small intestine and cortex of thymus
High endothelial venules?
HEVs - located in inner or deep cortex (paracortex) are sites of entry of most B and T cells - by homing mechanism
specialized cells - include Peyer patches in small intestine and cortex of thymux
High endothelial venules (HEV) are specialized post-capillary venous swellings characterized by plump endothelial cells as opposed to the usual thinner endothelial cells found in regular venules. HEVs enable lymphocytes circulating in the blood to directly enter a lymph node (by crossing through the HEV).
medulla of lymph?
surrounde by cortex except at hilum
two major components -
medullary SINUSOIDS- retic fibers, lymph, circulating cells and antigens - trabeculae
CORDS - w/ B cells, macrophages, plasma cells
Activated B cells migrate from cortex as plamsa cells and enter medullary sinus
Strategic location because plasma cells can secrte immunoglobulins directly into medullary sinus w/o leaving lymph node
Lymph vessels - afferent ?
carry from CT or other lymph nodes - pierce capsule and empty in large subcapsular sinus - just below capsule
from subcpasular sinus - lymph enters cortex through cortical sinuses and enters medullary sinuse
medullary sinuses converge toward hilus to drain in efferent lymph
how lymph nodes works - if understand this - spleen and MALT< GALT, Peyer’s Patches, Tonsils work similarly
Afferent lymph
10% comes thru capsule
90% via arteries
Bringing antigen presenting cells
If enter thru capsule
goes by lobed cortexes where B cells sample antigen
if recognize antigen B cell asks T cell for permission in paracortex (looks behind and gets OK)
If T cell oks - B activates - forms Germinal Center - proliferates antibodies
In Medulla (Center) Memory cells stay behind to sample for more of this antigen
AND - have HEVs - High Endothelial Venules - these works with capillary system and other 90% of blood - to strain antigen presenting cells - letting them wander around to cortex in lymph - looking for B cells that want to recognize their antigen
All lymph leaves via Hilem - and goes to next lymph as the Afferent - processing yet again - looking for the right B cell that recognizes the Antigen (unless it already has … then does it just proliferate?)
Hilem in lymph node, what structures?
3 things:
artery 90% antigen presenting cells enter here
vein
efferent lymph
Spleen - how work like a lymph node?
afferent can only enter via artery - not thru capsule
Four function in spleen
- Red Pulp - cleans out old, too big RBCs because can’t get thru fenestrations and other bad things
- White pulp - is immune system like lymph w/ cortex (b cells), paracortex (t cells giving permission) and medulla - memory cells and ?? - recognizes antigens, generates antibodies
- Makes IgG, properdin, tuftsin
- extramedullay hematopoiesis (fetal blood creation mainly in fetus) MYELOID METAPLASIA
Extramedullary hematopoiesis ?
(EMH or sometimes EH) refers to hematopoiesis occurring outside of the medulla of the bone (bone marrow). It can be physiologic or pathologic. Physiologic EMH occurs during embryonic and fetal development mainly.
MYELOID METAPLASIA - spleen starts making RBC and WBC - in leukemia ie.
Innate immune system -
This is neutrophils, vasodilation, margination, Emmigration, chemotaxis, Phagocytoses, compliment system, Interfeurons, Toll Receptors
May meet adaptive immunity during opsonization
Is a macrophage an Antigen Presenting Cell? Is a neutrophil?
Yes and NO.
Yes re macrophage - can take antigen back to B cells and show it off - and ask for help. It can also just phagocytose.
A neutrophil can only phagocytose.
Opsonizataion - C3b ?
What is it - our cells recognize antigens easily via PAMPS - Patholgen Associated Molecular Patters - so our cells know to put C3b complement on the outside, so that C3b receptors on phagocyte can bind - and hold on tightly while ingest.
Can additional bind MORE if IgG, IgM, etc are on the outside too of the bacteria - this involves adaptive immunity FCs
FCs are fragment crystalization - FCs mean there is an IgG< M< A< E ETC on the cell
MHCI vs MCH2?
MHC1 is a safeword - all cells manufacture this to tell our immune system that they are OK>
IF there is no MHC1 on a cell - our immune system knows it is malfunctioning - due to virus or malignancy and KILLS IS via CH8
8 divided by MCH1 = CD8
MCH2 ? who can make these>
Only antigen presenting cells can make these - If these are on outside of cell - phagocytes know to KILL via CD4.
8 divided by MCH2 = CD4
B Cell - mature but naive?
How does it get to become not-naive? Gets activated with permission of T cell in spleen, lymph in paracortex after being recognized by B cell
What happens to an activated B Cell?
Becomes a PLASMA cell and Fights OR stays in spleen, lymph as memory cell -
If becomes plasma cell - can speciailize and build antibodies - immunoglobins
pre specialization - it is an IgM - pentemere 10 chances to catch a fish
Y shpae of IG cells - immunoglobins
lower part is isotope which will become the M, G, A, E or D
upper part of Y is variable, and will best try to bind with antigen
these can circulated through blood on their own OR be attached as a surface protein on a cell
Affinity vs. Avidity?
Affinity is whether TIP of Y is specific enough to fight successfully - higher affinity, better success rate
IgM lease specific - primary fighters - but 5 arms to try to catch something
Affinity is one, but avidity (hope to catch) is 10 (highest rate)
for IgG - Affinity is already 10 because it has been worked on already and tweaked - and it has two small arms - so total avidity is 20. Stronger!
IgM - primary fighter, G, A E? D?
G - monomer - most common
A - dimer - mucosal liquid related (mother’s milk - dimer = 2 breasts to remember - WORMS
E - mast cells - allergy
D - impotent cell - will be killed
Neutralization? optimazation? complement?
Neutralization - see mostly in virus - COAT outside of virus with antibody - it can’t succeed - or coat all of receptors
Optimatzation? c3b -
outside of antigen has FC IgG, IgA - so that makes a tighter hold with receptor cells
Complement? C1
C1, c3b -
C3a, 4a, 5a - chemotaxis
c5 - 9 forms pore in cell which allows LYSIS and death
when do cells synthesize interfuerons?
Virus - interfuerons interfere
HELP! when macrophage has transmigrated and is fighting bacteria - what does it secrete to ask for more help? cytokines?
Interleuken 1,
Tumor Necrotic Factor alpha,
Interleuken 8
ENDOthelial cell in response release Selectins E (response to IL1 and TNFalpha
Interleuken 8 release - endothelial expose Icam, Vcam - integrins on neutrophils activated, bind in- VCAM, ILAM, ? firm binding, more diapedis
Do Interleuken 1 and TNF give you a temperature during infection? released by Macrophage…
Yes.
PGE2 -(resets body temperature) initiates fever - comes from hypothalmus when IL1, and TNF report to hypothalmus
why?
- High temperature harsher for bacteria to survive
- Speeds up cellular metabolism - healing happens faster
- zinc, iron sequestered that bacteria needs to flourish
IL1 - TNF in liver affects?
Acute Phase Reactive proteins in Liver created -
C Reactive Peptide
These high rates in blood - tells Dr. there is infection
IL1, TNF affect on bone marrow?
stim bone marrow to blast out more WBCs - more neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophiles (whatever kind of WBCs needed )
LEUKOCYTOSIS
phagosome?
WBC with bacteria engulfed within.
Phagolysosome?
when lysosome fuses with bacteria - in the phagosome.
hydrolytic enzymes of lysosome - breaks down bacteria.fungal/parasitic, etc - antigens persist
Neutrophil - can not present antigen so what do with antigen do?
spits them out - excotysis - into interstitial fluid - circulated into lymph nodes
types of Antigen presenting cells? 3
can produce MHC2
b cells
macrophages
dendritic cells
Can neutrophil always successfully break down bacterias, etc?
Oxygen Burst
they may die in the process - can sacrifice themselves via oxygen production - free radicals - which can enter neutrophil and destroy bacterias -
sometimes kills neutrophil, or neutrophil kills itself
Oxygen burst -
NETS other option - Neutrophils Extracellular Traps
release their DNA into extracellular fluid - bind it to bacteria and tag it for destruction- scary because if releasing chromatin - body could decide this is a foreign bad thing and start fighting it - but Ninja Nerd says don’t worry to much right now
Cathepsen J or G or other will then destroy or tag for opsonization by other WBCs
Macrophage - how can it present on cell? MHCII - recombination -
Major Histo Compatibility Complex Type 2
shuffling of genes on Chromosome 6
Binds with antigens in cell and puts them on the surface of the macrophage surface -
MHC2 in on surface of cell presenting antigen
MHC1 - with Self Molecule
all nucleated cells - safeword - as long as able to produce, cell is OK -
MHC2 - three types of genes? MCH1
DP, DQ, DR -
ABC
important in transplants
bacteria now spat out of neutrophils, and macrophages presenting antigen on surface -
Where do they now go?
Into lymph
B cell sees antigens go by, taste them,
every B cell is different - looking to see if they can fit against the bacteria -
can shuffle their parts, recombination
if antigen binds on to B cell because by random chance its a perfect fit -
uses clathrin to pull bacteria into cell, binds w/ MHC2 - and present whole package on cell surface -
Now B cell is activated - wants to proliferate - but can’t yet - waiting on Macrophage (and T cell OK?)
What is difference between precipitation and agglutination?
The antigen in precipitation reaction is in soluble form whereas in agglutination reaction the antigen is in sedimented form. The sensitivity of agglutination reaction is more than that of a precipitation reaction. … The end product in precipitation reaction appears as a large, insoluble mass of visible precipitate.
Aglutination often occurs with mismatched blood
Complement system? how harms antigens? LYSIS
makes hole in them - via MAC
Neutralization?
coats virus (usually) and virus can’t do its dirty work.
Other types of complement system? opsonization?
if stops at C3B - macrophage eats because macrophage has C3b receptors -
OR
Macrophage can eat bacteria directly ? why go through whole c3b process????
Ways to kill bacteria, fungus, parasites, etc?
phagocytosis complement system interfuerons toll receptors ??
Where are compliment proteins made and where are they stored? Which one binds first?
made in liver, flow through system looking for problems.
C1 binds first
