histology - block 3 Flashcards

Question

Calcification of tunica media

Answer 1

calcium deposit in media

Answer 2

thickening of walls of smaller arteris

Answer 3

1.increased permeability to LDL cholesterol. 2 endothelial injury increase ROS - which oxidized LDL in tunica intima 3 endothelial cell express cell adhesion molecules CAMS - that intiiate monocyte migration that differentiate in to macrophages 4 Macrophages phagocytize oxidized LDL - become FOAM cells - with spongy appearance loaded with lipid containing vesicles 5. platelet derived growth factor PDGF and other growth factors stimulate migration of smooth from media to intima 6. in intima, smooth produce lots of ECM increases thicken of Intime

Answer 4

macrophages or smooth muscle full of lipid material BLOCKS lumen? angioplasty - mechanical widening of narrowed/ obstructed arteries

Answer 5

LIPASE from saliva - breaks into free fatty acids, monoglicerides, cholesterol. Lipase also comes from pancreas - will be used in small intestine fat breakdown

Answer 6

small intestines, packaged into big fat globules, Liver releases bile which acts on globules, breaking them into smaller droplets GOAL - adequate surface area

Answer 7

Bile salts break down into small droplets - then pancreas lipase If bile salt step doesn't happen, trouble - because pancreatic lipase is not as effective

Answer 8

MICELLE _ package This is what can enter enterocyte - releasing free fatty acid, monoglycerides, cholesterol. didn't salivary lipase already do this? It couldn't do it all - MUCH stronger! so strong - would hurt your mouth Micelles are essentially small aggregates (4-8 nm in diameter) of mixed lipids and bile acids suspended within the ingesta. As the ingesta is mixed, micelles bump into the brush border of small intestinal enterocytes, and the lipids, including monoglyceride and fatty acids, are taken up into the epithelial cells.

Answer 9

TRIglycerides form CHYLOMICRONS (also fat soluble vitamins)

Answer 10

LYMPH - apo48 (bombs) drops chylomicrons from GI into Lymphatic system apob48 DROPS these bombs from GI to LYMPH system

Answer 11

blood system -

Answer 12

high density vs low.

Answer 13

puts more APO proteins on chylomicron - which helps processing - HDLs carry APO proteins around - and drop them off - Donates - APOC2 and APOE Now chylo - has THREE APOS on its surface. apo48, APOC2, and APOE

Answer 14

APOc2 - activates LPL - LPL hydrolyze - cuts triglicerideas into fatty acids to be absorbed by body APOc2 - CUTS and CLEAVES (insulin also activates LPLs) causing weight loss Type 1 diabetes

Answer 15

super important in pathway - everything has to be broken down into remnants - APOE gatekeeper - lets remnants be recycles - APOE EATS the remnants - recycles,

Answer 16

to the liver - where it is allowed in.

Answer 17

liver - triglycerides and cholesterol inside with apoB100 on shell.

Answer 18

HDL - good fat - loads VLDL - giving away APOc2 and APOE

Answer 19

activate LDL to hydrolize and convert triglycerideas into fatty acids for absorption.

Answer 20

changes to IDL - intermediate density - on its shell is APOE and APOB100 can ENTER liver and there be converted to LDL What doesn't enter liver is converted into LDL also (still has APOB100)

Answer 21

needs APOB100 - that's the receptor key

Answer 22

because it takes triglycerides and ? and takes them from the liver where they are stored and puts them into peripheral cells - using the APOB100 key to get inside. which can cause disease

Answer 23

know that this will allow fat, cholesterol, etc LDL entry into peripheral cells. endocytosis APO B100 makes you fat - makes you gain 100 pounds.

Answer 24

donates APO#, APOC2 - allowing reuptake and cleaver triglycerides into fatty acids for absorption.

Answer 25

secreted from liver and small intestine - baby HDL - nascent

Answer 26

Lcat - activated by APOA1 -

Answer 27

this allows creation of HDL - APOA1 - Activates Awesome fat!

Answer 28

skin uses sun and cholesterol.

Answer 29

testosterone, adrenal glands.

Answer 30

Makes bile acids to digest food.

Answer 31

food and liver -

Answer 32

yes, uses fat as energy. But fat can't be directly put in blood stream, needs to be packaged. Lipoprotein - then can move through body to cells that need it.

Answer 33

things are better or worse. liver makes VLDL (very low density) which makes LDL - Bad. VLDLs are stuffed with cholesterol and triglycerides

Answer 34

Yes, and they provide energy to your cells.

Answer 35

Stores the extra triglycerides as body fat. When gives up the triglyceride - becomes LDL the LDLs then travel thru blood providing cholesterol to cells that need it.

Answer 36

Builds up depositing plaque in blood vessels. If vessel walls are damaged, it is easier for plaque to form. Over time, builds up, narrows vessels. Hence BAD LDLs

Answer 37

in coronary arteries, carotid (increasing stroke risk bec lack of blood to brain).

Answer 38

Liver also makes these - GOOD - inside they have less triglyc and cholesterol than LDL.

Answer 39

Helps remove cholesterol from cells and from plaque in vessels.

Answer 40

Takes to liver - which then removes excess cholesterol via bile ?

Answer 41

Cholesterol <200mg/dL HDL>60 or higher LDL < 100 Triglyc > 150

Answer 42

Saturated / Trans - raise LDL - (solid at room temp)

Answer 43

Statins - reduce cholesterol made in liver - effect LDLs mostly Niacin - reduces LDLs and triglyc and increases HDL made in liver Bile Acid binding drugs - prevent reuse of bile after being used to help digest food - therefore liver uses up MORE cholesterol lost bile. Fibrates mainly reduce trigly in blood but also raise HDL levels Cholesterol absorption inhibitors - reduce cholesterol absorbed in intestines

Answer 44

Chylomicron, VLDL, LDL< HDL HDL has most amount of protein in ratio to lipids In this order - Lease protein to most

Answer 45

a combo - lipoprotein

Answer 46

transport and deliver fat to tissues

Answer 47

in small intestine - lipid broken into micelles Micells in cells then package - with fatty acid, monodlyceroi, adopocytes, and cholesterol in to cholymicrons Which GO into lymph - and then blood delivering where needed remnants go to liver - bind on to LDL receptors - brought into liver.

Answer 48

in liver, from gluose, via mitochondria - pyruvate to acetyl-coa using enzyme HMG - coa reductase STATINS inhibit HMG - so less cholesterol in created

Answer 49

it just makes the container - EMPTY _ which goes through body collecting cholesterol. OR it can make VLDLs - which main job is to transport triglyc and cholesterol to body.

Answer 50

Liberated fatty acids in Lipase - VLDL becomes IDL (intermediate DL) - and fatty acids can be stored as fat or used by tissues for energy.

Answer 51

IDL converts to LDL - which main job is to transport cholesterol to tissues (it has A LOT of cholesterol)

Answer 52

hormones and cell membrane liquidity, one more??

Answer 53

return to liver, bind to LDL receptors - can recycle in to golgi to make more lipoproteins or be excreted

Answer 54

picks up cholesterol in circulation - full HDL returns to liver binding to scavenger receptors - and takes cholesterol into liver.

Answer 55

inhibits cholesterol formation in liver. ALSO gets rid of LDLs and creates HDL. bad aspects? toxicity Myology, rhab...

Answer 56

in hepatocyte - inhibits VLDL secreting into blood inhibits Lipolisis in the vessels? ``` decreases LDL (as VLDL not around) HDL also increased ```

Answer 57

the breakdown of fats and other lipids by hydrolysis to release fatty acid in the endothelial cells

Answer 58

stops bile reabsorption when comes back to the liver. fat soluble Vitamins also not able to get into liver creates Gallstones decreases LDL - because using up other cholesterol. HDL - slight increase

Answer 59

inhibits reabsorption of cholesterol (as opposed to reabsorption of bile) decrease LDL No effect on HDL

Answer 60

work in vessels - decrease lipilosis - uptake of LDL decrease LDL, huge TAG decresae?, HDL slightly increased. toxicity - yes. rhabdomyolisis.

Answer 61

Pericytes (previously known as Rouget cells) are multi-functional mural cells of the microcirculation that wrap around the endothelial cells that line the capillaries and venules throughout the body. ... Pericytes help to maintain homeostatic and hemostatic functions in the brain and also sustain the blood–brain barrier. Pericytes and their stem cell potential in the brain: Pericytes are multi-functional cells located within the basement membrane that surrounds capillaries throughout the body. They can regulate blood flow, are involved in angiogenesis and inflammation, and display stem cell-like properties.

Answer 62

A fibroblast is a type of biological cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (stroma) for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing. Fibroblasts are the most common cells of connective tissue in animals.

Answer 63

The papillary muscles are muscles located in the ventricles of the heart. They attach to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves (also known as the mitral and tricuspid valves) via the chordae tendineae and contract to prevent inversion or prolapse of these valves on systole (or ventricular contraction).

Answer 64

papillary muscles and chordae tendineae

Answer 65

increased or excessive production of urine ANF stimulates

Answer 66

excretion of sodium in the urine. ANF stimulates

Answer 67

The most common causes of hypervolemia include: heart failure, specifically of the right ventricle. cirrhosis, often caused by excess alcohol consumption or hepatitis. kidney failure, often caused by diabetes and other metabolic disorders.

Answer 68

in response to increased pressure across atrial wall - stretch and Endothelin, a potent vasoconstrictor, stimulates ANP secretion and augments stretch induced ANP secretion.

Answer 69

Veins - and caliber is larger - 70% of blood volume walls thinner, more supple, less elastic histologically - are seen as COLLAPSED structures - w/ irregular slit-like lumen unless special effort made

Answer 70

Yes, can adapt to volune and pressure variations - "capacitance" or reservoir vessels.

Answer 71

The antidiuretic hormone in humans and most mammals is arginine vasopressin (AVP). AVP promotes the reabsorption of water from the tubular fluid in the collecting duct, the hydro-osmotic effect, and it does not exert a significant effect on the rate of Na+ reabsorption

Answer 72

refers to degree of active constriction of vessels (mainly veins) which affects return of blood to the heart and thus cardiac output. ... Capacitance vessels are considered to be the blood vessels that contain most of the blood and that can readily accommodate changes in the blood volume.

Answer 73

In addition to their primary function of returning blood to the heart, veins may be considered blood reservoirs, since systemic veins contain approximately 64 percent of the blood volume at any given time.

Answer 74

tunica intima, media, adventitia - boundaries often indistinct muscular and elastic tissue not as well developed as in arteries - but CT much more prominent

Answer 75

venules (post cap and muscular types) small-med large

Answer 76

When several caps unite - a venule is formed - 15 -20 um cylindrical vessel in diameter layers of endothelium, thin longit. retic fibers w/ fibroblasts pericytes may be present Similar to capillary - although caliber of vessel is larger

Answer 77

imp sites of fluid exchange and leukocyte migration

Answer 78

in the lymph after exiting the caps of arteries or veins.

Answer 79

The lymph is drained from the lung through two distinct but interconnected sets of lymphatic vessels. ... Within the lung and the mediastinum, lymph nodes exert their filtering action on the lymph before it is returned into the blood through the major lymphatic vessels, called bronchomediastinal trunks.

Answer 80

cuboidal, incomplete intercellular junctions - permitting ready passage of lymphocytes to and from blood. Called HEVs - High endothelial venules High endothelial venules (HEV) are specialized post-capillary venous swellings characterized by plump endothelial cells as opposed to the usual thinner endothelial cells found in regular venules. HEVs enable lymphocytes circulating in the blood to directly enter a lymph node (by crossing through the HEV).

Answer 81

more sensitive to inflam agents - promoting leakiness of fluids and defensive cells in inflammatory response - eg histamine, serotinin, other substances known to increase vascular permeability)

Answer 82

>50 um - smooth muscle appears - >200 um - circular muscle forms layer 1 - 3 layers thick - - spaced with CT and elastic THICK adventitia

Answer 83

1 - 9 mm tunica intima thin - endo cells short and polygonal, irregular shape subendo - inconspicuous no distinct internal elastic lamina TUNICA MEDIA -thinner than in arteries - best developed in lower limbs ADVENTITIA - thick - thicker than media, made of loose CT with longit. collage bundles and few smooth muscles - arranged in fascicles, longit along vessel.

Answer 84

>10 mm, tunica intima - lining rests on thick subendothelial layer of CT Media - poorly developed Adventitia - THICK. 3 Zones - inner - dense fibroelastic CT - course collage fibers - frequent spiral arrangement Mid zone - many longit muscle fibers outer - only course collag and elastic fibers

Answer 85

>10 mm, tunica intima - lining rests on thick subendothelial layer of CT Media - poorly developed Adventitia - THICK. 3 Zones - inner - dense fibroelastic CT - course collage fibers - frequent spiral arrangement Mid zone - many longit muscle fibers outer - only course collagenous and elastic fibers

Answer 86

MANY in adventitia - providing nutrients and blood to veins.

Answer 87

prevent retrograde flow - formed by reduplcation of intima, strenthened by CT and elastic fibers - covered in endothelium - arrangement differs on both surfaces. between valve and wall in sinus - wall usually thin

Answer 88

current side - subendothelial CT has rich network of elastic fibers generally valves lie against wall of vein, but when regurg occurs - valves distend, free margins coming into contact - backflow prevented since venous wall is dilated on cardiac side of attachment, veins appear knotted when distended

Answer 89

caused (I think in part - may be sole reason?) by veins dilating and valve free margins can't reach one another

Answer 90

some places (skin, etc) blood shunts from anterioles to venules w/o circulating through cap network. "AV SHUNT" walls of shunt are thick, muscular, and lots of vasomotor nerve fibers

Answer 91

AV shunts in nail beds of fingers and toes and auricle of ear - branched and torturous - special organ formed called glomus A glomus body (or glomus apparatus) is a component of the dermis layer of the skin, involved in body temperature regulation. The glomus body consists of an arteriovenous shunt surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Glomus bodies are most numerous in the fingers and toes.

Answer 92

lowers blood flow, conserves heat if CLOSED - heat is lost, if OPEN - conserves heat

Answer 93

increases heat loss

Answer 94

yes, thin walled - and three tunicas not well defined -

Answer 95

when diameter is greater than NORMAL - and is elongated and tortuous.

Answer 96

superficial veins of lower limb esophageal varices hemorroids

Answer 97

Yes - often secondary valvular incompetence valves also can not change size as veins dilate

Answer 98

formation of a blood clot, known as a thrombus, within a blood vessel. It prevents blood from flowing normally through the circulatory system.

Answer 99

Something that travels through the bloodstream, lodges in a blood vessel and blocks it. Examples of emboli are a detached blood clot, a clump of bacteria, and foreign material such as air.

Answer 100

obese, familial, pregnancy due to increased luminal pressure and weakened vessel wall support tend to be blue and bulge - tortuous

Answer 101

liver cirrhosis, portal vein obstruction hepatic vein thrombosis - cause portal vein hypertensions - porto systemic shunting increases blood butt, gut, caput

Answer 102

External hemorrhoids can become thrombosed (develop blood clots inside) and become very tender. Large blood clots can produce pain with walking, sitting or passage of stool. It is not clear why healthy people suddenly develop clots in external hemorrhoids

Answer 103

constipation and pregnancy | can be complicated by bleeding and thrombosis (pain)

Answer 104

Marfan's - fibrullin essential for the formation of elastic fibers found in connective tissue. Fibrillin is secreted into the extracellular matrix by fibroblasts and becomes incorporated into the insoluble microfibrils, which appear to provide a scaffold for deposition of elastin. Ehler -Danlos Syndrome - lack of collagen type V Classical Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) is characterized by skin hyperelasticity, joint hypermobility, increased tendency to bruise, and abnormal scarring. Mutations in type V collagen, a regulator of type I collagen fibrillogenesis, have been shown to underlie this type of EDS The EDS community adopted the zebra as its mascot because "sometimes when you hear hoofbeats, it really is a zebra." Skin. Soft velvety-like skin; variable skin hyper-extensibility; fragile skin that tears or bruises easily (bruising may be severe); severe scarring; slow and poor wound healing; development of molluscoid pseudo tumors (fleshy lesions associated with scars over pressure areas).

Answer 105

sympathetic - "vasomotor tone" - one method of controls our blood pressure -

Answer 106

Elastin is also a protein found in connective tissues—but a different type of protein than collagen. It has the actual property of being elastic. It's responsible for allowing tissues in the body to “snap back” to their original shape after being stretched or contracted.

Answer 107

is a glycoprotein, which is essential for the formation of elastic fibers found in connective tissue. Fibrillin is secreted into the extracellular matrix by fibroblasts and becomes incorporated into the insoluble microfibrils, which appear to provide a scaffold for deposition of elastin.

Answer 108

Dense irregular CT - with vaso vasorom - also supplies some of tunica media tertiary syphilis - destroys these v vasorom - destroys blood vessels - which means adventitia dies, and blood vessel wall weakens leading to dissections and aneurysms

Answer 109

tunica media - much thicker in arteries adventitia THICK in veins Lumen - collapsed - veins when see on slide internal elatisic lamina - much more prominent in arteries

Answer 110

sinusoidal - liver, spleen, bone marrow - huge clefts in endothelial cells (intercellular clefts) RBC, plasma, albumin can leak out - in both layers - epithelial and basal lamina

Answer 111

SKIN, Muscles, BBB, lungs small clefts (exception is BBB where have tight junctions) have PERICYTES - believe control endothelial cell growth, constriction, phagocytes, and pericytes - blood small things can leak out and PINOCYTOSIS - transcytosis so passage via pinocytosis and passive diffusion

Answer 112

medium intercellular clefts, fenestration pores in endothelial cells - no blood cells can leave, but sollutes and plasma can leave Pinocytosis possible Kidneys, glands - exocrine (ducts) endocrine (no ducts - ductless)

Answer 113

terminal arteirial = feeding into AV shunt

Answer 114

vascular shunt - drained by post capillary venule

Answer 115

pre-capillary sphincter - sympathetic and chems control - when contracted, blood can't enter true capillaries

Answer 116

keeps blood in blood stream. Albumin, the main protein produced in the liver, has numerous functions in the body, the most important of which is maintaining intravascular colloid osmotic pressure (COP). COP helps fluid stay within the vasculature instead of leaking into tissue.

Answer 117

near common carotid - chemoreceptor reads oxygen levels -

Answer 118

People with high blood pressure are more likely to develop coronary artery disease, because high blood pressure puts added force against the artery walls. Over time, this extra pressure can damage the arteries, making them more vulnerable to the narrowing and plaque buildup associated with atherosclerosis.

Answer 119

Increases - BP - juxtaglomera apparatus cells respond to NE - increases angiotensin 2 - increasing BP in number of ways - increasing aldosterone, ADH production, causing vasoconstriction mechanisms -

Answer 120

hypersensitive nervous system - constricts vasoconstriction in arterioles - Renin production heightened SA node increases heart rate - and force of cardiac output low renin hypertension (elderly and afro americans) Less salt in urine - increase in sodium retention - blood volume increased

Answer 121

``` primary - diabetic obese type A people sedentary obstrutive sleep apnea disorder vitamin d deficiency alcohol smoking ethnicity ```

Answer 122

Kidney - disease of renal tissue -

Answer 123

1. VASOCONSTRICTION of afferent protects kidney - too high flow can damage kidney and system in general afferent delivery system, when stretched contracts delivery system to lower amount of blood coming in. - smooth muscles contracting delivery system - sodium into smooth - release calcium, combine calmodulin, light chase kinase - contract

Answer 124

allow vasodilation - relaxes afferent

Answer 125

GFR is high - prox convoluted tubule cells - little hands catching all sodiums - many will make past - more than normal thru loop of henley Goal of prox convoluted - to not let too much sodium to pass, but if there is SO much sodium, a lot will get by - so how to stop this? when sodium chloride gets by macula densa cells - chemoreceptors - say OH NO too much, lots of sodium and chloride - Sodium flows in cells, voltage goes up, atp released - leaves cell, converts to ADENOSINE - goes to mesangial cells - help w/ phagocytosis, etc - adenosine activate g protein - stim SER - creates calcium Calcium goes to JUXTAGLOMERUAL cells (connected to mesangial cells via gap junctions) - releases RENIN Calcium flows to juxta, in juxta there are granules, ca stim RENIN granules to fuse w/ membrane - renin granules released. AND mesengial cells also connected to smooth muscle around vessels - constricts vessel, restricts blood flow - gfr rate reduced, sodium reduced

Answer 126

kidney level What is the normal GFR level? Generally: In adults, the normal GFR number is 90 or higher. Having a GFR between 60 and 89 may be normal for some people, including those over age 60. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a measure of the function of the kidneys. This test measures the level of creatinine in the blood and uses the result in a formula to calculate a number that reflects how well the kidneys are functioning, called the estimated GFR or eGFR

Answer 127

macula densa not cause restriction - they dilate - so more blood flow, more sodium. Also, Macula densa releases NO and Prosteglanda e too - which relaxes smooth muscle

Answer 128

Macula densa cells in the distal nephron, according to the classic paradigm, are salt sensors that generate paracrine chemical signals in the juxtaglomerular apparatus to control vital kidney functions, including renal blood flow, glomerular filtration, and renin release

Answer 129

Systolic < 80 - baroreptors in carotids - sympathetic - in carotid and aortic sinus - two nerves - glossophangeal (carotid sinus) and vagus (aortic sinus) nerve - decreases GFR - odd because would think would want GFR to go up! but no, because symp is trying to save system. on kidney, alpha 1 adrenergic receptor on smooth - CONTRACT powerfully, constricting urine, telling kidney to stop working - because symp trying to save body organs - not the kidney need to keep urine inside to maintain systemic blood pressure - stops it from leaving symp nerve also goes to juxta cells Beta 1 adr. - stimulates ca - stimulates renin release -

Answer 130

renin takes amino acids from angiotensinogen - NEED TO DO THIS.

Answer 131

Renin, which is released primarily by the kidneys, stimulates the formation of angiotensin in blood and tissues, which in turn stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Renin is a proteolytic enzyme that is released into the circulation by the kidneys.

Answer 132

Aldosterone is a steroid hormone. Its main role is to regulate salt and water in the body, thus having an effect on blood pressure. Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the outer section (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys.

Answer 133

carotid body - at bifurcation - chemoreceptor - measures O2 levels carotid sinus - proximal internal carotid artery - baroreceptor sensitive to BLOOD PRESSURE - Sensitive to low oxygen tension, high carbon dioxide and low pH of arterial blood glossopharyngeal n (CN IX), vagus CN x

Answer 134

glomus cells (type 1) and sheath cells or sustentatular Type 2) w/ rich vascular supply - caps fenestrated - lots of nerves aortic and jugular glomeruli - similar in structure to carotid bodies

Answer 135

The carotid sinus is a dilation at the base of the internal carotid artery. The nearby carotid body is a fibrous-covered structure that rests posteriorly to the carotid bifurcation. The blood supply to carotid sinus is by the vasa vasorum vessels. BARORECEPTOR - tunica media thinner - adventitia thicker - lots of nerves - glossopharygeal nerve - stim by stretching - thus reacting to changes in pressure -

Answer 136

Cellular immunity involves the development of immune cells that are able to recognize, bind, and kill other cells that have previously been infected by foreign infectious agents. THE HUMORAL IMMUNE SYSTEM. The word humoral refers to fluids (Latin - humors) that pass through the body.

Answer 137

cells (rbc, wbc, platelets -thrombocytes) plasma 55%

Answer 138

% rbc men 40 50%, women 35 - 45% Low crit - anemia or blood loss

Answer 139

wbc + platelets

Answer 140

denoting the liquid lying above a solid residue after crystallization, precipitation, centrifugation, or other process.

Answer 141

``` albumin fibrinogen immunoglobulins lipids hormones vitamins and salts ```

Answer 142

heparin or sodium citrate

Answer 143

protein rich fluid lacking fibrinogen blood clot - fibrin containing network trapping blood cells

Answer 144

water, plasma, hormones, other - WATER 92% PLASMA 7%, albumin 60%, liver transport and osmotic concentration globulins 38% plasma cells - immunity alpha -liver - transport beta - liver - transport gamma plasma cells - immune fibrinogen 7% Liver - clotting HORMONES/enzymes <1% other 1%

Answer 145

rbc, wbc <1, platelets <1 RBC 99% - red bone marrow, non specific immunity WBC<1% - granular, made in red bone marrow - non-specific immunity function leukocytes: neutrophils eosinophils basophils agranular leukocytes: lymphocytes, monoctyes Lymphocytes - bone marrow and lymph tissue - specific immunity Monocytes red bone marrow - non specific immunity PLATELETS - Megakaryocytes - red bone marrow - hemostasis

Answer 146

Stop Bleeding - stop blood flow

Answer 147

"large-nucleus cell") is a large bone marrow cell with a lobated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes (platelets), which are necessary for normal blood clotting.

Answer 148

no nucleus, nor organelles - only plasma membrane , cytoskeleton, hemoglobin and glycolytic enzymes

Answer 149

phagocytosis or hemolysis in spleen

Answer 150

baby rbcs - complete hemoglobin synthesis and mature 1 -2 days after entering circulation - accoutns for 1-2% of circulating rbcs

Answer 151

oxygen and co2, are confined to circ system

Answer 152

from marrow - destruction to globin- amino acids, recycled Heme - bilirubin and iron recycles via trasferrin to liver to marrow

Answer 153

the liver is the main organ of RBC removal and iron recycling is surprising, as is the fact that the liver relies on a buffer system consisting of bone marrow-derived monocytes that consume damaged red blood cells in the blood and settle in the liver, where they become the transient macrophages capable

Answer 154

Old or damaged RBCs are removed from the circulation by macrophages in the spleen and liver, and the hemoglobin they contain is broken down into heme and globin. The globin protein may be recycled, or broken down further to its constituent amino acids, which may be recycled or metabolized.

Answer 155

liver, spleen, red marrow

Answer 156

four subunits - globular protein - adult HbA - a2b2 2a-globin, 2b-globin FETAL - HbF - a2y2 Pulls 02 from maternal blood into fetal blood - o2 affinity of hbF is higher - explained by 2,3-BPG

Answer 157

integral member proteins - glycophorins band 3 proteins - PERIPHERAL membrane proteins - inner surface of membrane - lattice network - spectrin, actin, Band 4.1, adducin, Band 4.8, trpomyosins Lattice network bound by andyrin - acticing with band 4.2 and band 3

Answer 158

elliptocytosis and spherocytosis - common features - anemia, jaundice, splenomegaly spenectomy is normal cure

Answer 159

autosomal dominant disorder - defective spectrin - abnormal binding

Answer 160

autosomal dominant - deficiency in spectrin or andyrin

Answer 161

causes decrease in rbc surface - most common defect involves ankyrin non-deformable cells - shedding of membrane vesicle trapped in splenic cords and phagocytosed by macrophages

Answer 162

Howell-Jolly bodies are nuclear remnants that are found in the RBCs of patients with reduced or absent splenic function and in patients with megaloblastic anemima

Answer 163

Hyperchromia means increase in color. The only cells that are truly hyperchromic are spherocytes. Spherocytes are the only cells that contain more hemoglobin than normal in relation to the cell volume. ... Cells located in the "too thin" portion of the smear may appear to be hyperchromic; however, this is an artifact

Answer 164

(RBCs) that are unequal in size. Normally, a person's RBCs should all be roughly the same size. Anisocytosis is usually caused by another medical condition called anemia.

Answer 165

1. Hemosiderosis (excessive accumulation of iron deposits) The lungs and kidneys are often sites of hemosiderosis. 2. anemia 3. splenomegaly 4. jaundice 5. rbcs show increased osmotic fragility 6. parvovirus b19 infects and destroy rbcs in marrow triggering recurrent aplastic crisis - supportive treatments transfusion or splenectomy (risk infection) - partial option

Answer 166

Splenomegaly with a Mild to Moderate Hemolytic Anemia, Increased Bilirubin and an Increased Risk for Jaundice and Pigment Gallstones Secondary to Chronic Hemolysis, and Increased Risk for Acute Red-cell Aplasia Due to Parvovirus B19 Infection Laboratory Testing Shows Increased Osmotic Fragility and Normal MCH with Increased MCHC Treatment Is with Splenectomy

Answer 167

glutamic acid replaced by valine at 6th position disc rigid, less deformable - severe hemolytic anemia and obstruciton of postcap venules

Answer 168

heritable anemia - defective synthesis of alpha or best chains - anemia - defined by defective synthesis of hemoglobin molecule and hemolysis

Answer 169

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells.

Answer 170

hetero - half of HbA replaced with HbS - homo - all HbA replaced Sickle cell trait describes a condition in which a person has one abnormal allele of the hemoglobin beta gene (is heterozygous), but does not display the severe symptoms of sickle cell disease that occur in a person who has two copies of that allele (is homozygous).

Answer 171

Looks to me like only on beta?

Answer 172

anisocytosis (variation size) poikilocytosis (vary in shape) Target cells - dense stained center, pale ring, dark encircling band

Answer 173

distortion of membrane by each sickling episode - leads to influx of calcium, -> loss of potassium and water -> damages membrane skeleton

Answer 174

a form of thalassemia involving the genes HBA1 and HBA2. Thalassemias are a group of inherited blood conditions which result in the impaired production of hemoglobin, the molecule that carries oxygen in the blood. results in reduced amount of HbF and HbA - since there is reduced synthesis of aglobin subunits

Answer 175

Beta thalassemia is a blood disorder that reduces the production of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells throughout the body. In people with beta thalassemia, low levels of hemoglobin lead to a lack of oxygen in many parts of the body.

Answer 176

Alpha thalassemia is caused by reduced or absent synthesis of alpha globin chains, and beta thalassemia is caused by reduced or absent synthesis of beta globin chains.

Answer 177

Yes – both alpha and beta thalassemia – Hgb A2 is elevated indicating beta thalassemia. More profound microcytosis than expected and gene mutation (so alpha thalassemia). Normal Hgb because it is a balanced mutation

Answer 178

``` tiredness. shortness of breath. a fast heartbeat. pale skin. yellow skin and eyes (jaundice) moodiness. slow growth. ```

Answer 179

low number - anemia high number - often people at high altitude

Answer 180

blood viscosity increased -

Answer 181

Usually, macrocytosis is caused by nutritional deficiency, specifically of folate or vitamin B12. This can arise from a hereditary condition called pernicious anemia, in which a protein called intrinsic factor is lacking in your gut. Intrinsic factor helps your body absorb vitamin B12.

Answer 182

usually asso w lack of rbcs, but can also be rbc normal in number but lacking hemoglobin - hypochromic anemia. also can be thru blood loss

Answer 183

lacking enough hemoglobin in rbcs - usually due to iron deficiency OR accelerated destruction of rbcs OR insufficient productino of rbcs

Answer 184

iron, b12, folate

Answer 185

increass serum iron - and iron stored in liver and bone - iron crucial for normal rbc prodcution and forming proteins, such as hemoglobin

Answer 186

crucial for DNA synthesis and generating new rbcs (

Answer 187

generating new rbcs definition

Answer 188

when folic acid dependent or v b12 dependent synthesis is impaired in immature rbcs -

Answer 189

skips division - abnormally large cells

Answer 190

normally produced in kidneys in response to decrease in blood flow tension - stiumlates erthropoiesis - (rbc prodcution) and increasese hematocrit. some drugs can stiumlate this

Answer 191

stim proliferatin, diffentiation and migration and functional activity of neutrophils

Answer 192

stim proliferatin, diffentiation and functional activity of neutrophils, MONOcityes and MACROphages

Answer 193

two groups - granuloctyes (specific granules) agranulocytes (lack specific granules) BOTH have nonspecific azurophilic granules, which are lysosomes

Answer 194

leukocytes leave bloodstream and enter CT by homing mechanism - where perform functions and most die by apoptosis

Answer 195

leukocyte - 6000 - 10000 neutrophils 5000 - 60-70% eosinophils 150 basophils 30 lymphocytes 2400 monocytes 350 platelets 300,000

Answer 196

are immature red blood cells (RBCs). In the process of erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation), reticulocytes develop and mature in the bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells.

Answer 197

neutrophils eosinophils basophils NON-dividing, terminal cells - life span of few days - die by apoptosis in CT

Answer 198

moncytes, lymphocytes

Answer 199

most common wbc, 60-70 -% first cells to migrate to the site of the infection to begin killing the invading microbes nucleus - 2 - 5 lobes linked w/ chromatin fine threads; few organelles but granules - small golgi, few mitochondria chromatin - hertochromatin at periphery, ehcromatin in center - females Barr Body forms drumstick shaped appendange on lobe

Answer 200

specific (secondary), contain enzymes - type IV collagenase, etc - lactoferrin, lysoszyme, etc azurophilic (primary granules) - less numerous - lysosomes, help to produce bactericidal hypochlorite and chloramines, also acid hydrolases and defensis here - contain elastase, defenseins and myeoloperoxidase tertiary - phosphatases and metalloproteinases (help w/ migration through CT

Answer 201

rolling, adhesion, transmigration

Answer 202

selectins - weak, | integrins - strong

Answer 203

1. leukocytes reports to injury site in wall of vessel "margination" via endothelial cell activation 2. rolling 3. adhesion 4. transmigration (diapedesis 5. chemotasix

Answer 204

adhesion mediated by binding of complementary molecules on surface of neutrophils and endothelium step 1 - inflammation - increased expression of E-selectin and P selectin step 2. neutrophils weakly bind to selectins and roll step 3, neutrophils stimulated by chemokines to express their integrins step 4 - finding of integrins firmly adheres

Answer 205

selectins e, L P integrins VLA4, LFA1, Mac! immunoglobulins Icam1, intercellular vcam1, vascular pecam 1 platelet Mucin like glycoproteins

Answer 206

bind sugars (lectins) L selectin - bind to mucin like molecule GLY-CAM1 LEUKOCYTES - LLLLL E and P - vind to SIALYL Lewis X, etc P selectin - present in platelets

Answer 207

Yes, and strong adhension vla4 - beta 1 lfa - beta 2 mac1 - beta 2 integrins interact w/ integrin receptors on endo theli cells that are classified as immunoglobulins ICAM< VCAM

Answer 208

FIRM adhesion - binds to integrins on leukocyte cell ICAM, (intercellular) - LFA1, Mac 1 VCAM (vascular) VLA4

Answer 209

fastest - redistribution to surface - ie p selectin 2. synthesis of adhesion molecules - cytokines and TNF induce production of E selectin, icam 1, vcam 1 in endothelial cells 3. increased binding affinity - chmotactic agents cause conformational change in leukotye integrin lfa1, converted to high affiinity binding state

Answer 210

Partly mechanical, party chemical - c5a, leukotriene B4, bacterial products

Answer 211

P and E selectin, sialyl glycam 1 - L selectin

Answer 212

vcame - vla integrin | icam - lfa and mac 1

Answer 213

inflamed - increase E and P selectin - call for help - why? because stimulation by histamin and thrombin

Answer 214

neutrophils weakly bind to selectins - and roll - integrins on surface by not activated sialy and L selectin on surface

Answer 215

neutrophils stimulated by chemotactic agents (chemokines and c5a) to express integrins

Answer 216

integrins expressed -bind to ICAM1 on endothelium | adhesion - firm attachment

Answer 217

platelet adhesion on leukocyte - tranmigrate pecam 1 neutrophils release type IV collagenase degrading basement membrane

Answer 218

yes, see video where they respond to chemomessages

Answer 219

asso w/ recurrent bacterial infecitons - LAD type 1 (defective syntheis of beta 2 integrins LFA1 and Mac1 beca mutation on beta chain CD11/18 LAD type 2 (lack of sialyl) mutation fucosyl transferase - required for synthesis of sialylated oligosaccharide

Answer 220

attraction of cells toward chemical mediator - released in area of inflammation include bacterial products such as LTB4, c5a, chemokines (IL 3, N formylmethionine

Answer 221

need rbc production - lack of rbcs and oxygen supply

Answer 222

bacteria attacks cell - MAST cell releases histamine, etc

Answer 223

1. hyperactive sensitive sympathetic ns - releases NE 2. kidney - release renin UPS BP can have hyper system, release more renin than normal - producing more renin increases angiotensin 2, increases BP many ways - releasing aldosterone access 3. heart - SA node - NE increases - increase cardiac output, and Contractility of muscles 4. decrease sodium excretion - salt output (sodium retention) increasing blood volume which lowers renin production - afro americans, elderly -

Answer 224

primary hypertension 25 -55 YO.

Answer 225

underlying diseases? Kidney - damage in various parts of kidney, vascular system to kidney - stenosis - things build up behind, fibroid issues in vessels high aldosteron production (increased sodium and water reabsorption - increase blood volune) elevated cortisol (cushing's synd) increases NE E receptors sensitivity - elevated production of NE E in adrenal glands thyroid - hypo or hyper thyroidism, both can raise BP coarctation of aorta - (children genetic - aorta narrowing area - at arch- BP high behind

Answer 226

renin then cleaves things from angiotensinogen , (made in liver) creating AT1 - which goes through blood in lungs meets up with ACE, then creates Angiotensin T2 - AT2 receptors on smooth muscles of blood vessels - contracts - tunica media constricts - BP goes up At2 - acts on pituitary - which releases antidiuretic hormone ADH _- which goes to kidney, stimulates water reabsorption - blood volune up, bp up, AT2 stim zona glomulerosa on adrenal cortex, to release aldosterone- at kidney works on tubules - increases sodium resorption - blood volume up. Aldosterone also ups potassium in urine - ?

Answer 227

Ace inhibitor - angiotensin 2 is not produced. so no vasoconstriction in smooth muscles, no adh from pituitary, no aldosterone in suprarenals - potassium can built up now - SIDE AFFECT in ACE blockers. cough?

Answer 228

DIURETICS - decrease blood volume by facilitating NA+ excretion - hence reducing fluid volume BETA1 BLOCKERS - prevents accumulation of cAMP, thereby reducing muscle contractility these are antagonists of v1 adrenergic receptors RENIN inhibitors (aliskiren is first direct renin inhibitor) CALCIUM CHANNEL Blockers - block calcium in cardiac and smooth muscle entry - a1 Receptor Blockers - directly relax vascular smooth muscle - unbinds ca2 from calmodulin -

Answer 229

how hard your heart has to work to pump blood through- amount of pressure your ventricles have to overcome to pump blood into your aorta

Answer 230

is the initial stretching of the cardiac myocytes (muscle cells) prior to contraction. It is related to ventricular filling. Afterload is the force or load against which the heart has to contract to eject the blood.

Answer 231

helps avoid Heart Failure Often causes COUGH

Answer 232

inhibiting Angiotensin 2 every where it binds - just what ACE inhibitors do.

Answer 233

decreasing remodeling of heart, potassium sparing - inhibits aldosterone production

Answer 234

Tell SNS to up NE/E to raise BP - directs action at heart in two places - tries to increase heart rate at SA node in heart - goes to beta receptors, NE says pump faster and b1 receptors on contractile myocardium and pump harder (this is using a lot of oxygen to make this happen) if rate is too fast, ventricles don't have enough time to get oxygen it needs to heart - to high demand - need to slow down to be able to savor oxygen And don't have enough oxygen - so stressing heart

Answer 235

two kinds - decrease heart rate and decrease contractility decrease afterload - and also act on kidney and JG cells which triggers renin

Answer 236

increases contractility - but blocks AV node

Answer 237

two types loop act on the loop (in kidney) increases urine output - gets rid of fluid in body, lowers BP - lowers volume of blood

Answer 238

increases contractile force of heart - increases ca2 in cells, increases ca2 release from SR, increases actin myosin interaction -

Answer 239

incresae cAMP in cell - increase ca entry into cell

Answer 240

increases cAMP - camp phosphorolates calcium channels, increases calcium flow into cells

Answer 241

abnormal automaticity - other areas than SA node generate competing signal abnormalities in impulse conduction - generally bifurcating but if blocked signal may go retrograde -

Answer 242

angina - ischemic heart disease caused by poor 02 economics

Answer 243

reduce heart rate and contractility - reduce afterload and arterial pressure, and reduce preload and cariac filling Nitrates - induce vasodilation by directin activatin of guanylyl cyclase by nitric oxide and resultant increase in cGMP.

Answer 244

reduce heart rate and contractility - reduce afterload and arterial pressure, and reduce preload and cariac filling Nitrates - induce vasodilation by direct activatin of guanylyl cyclase by nitric oxide and resultant increase in cGMP.

Answer 245

monocyte - basophil - nucleus s or c shape eosinophil - nucleus sunglass shape - bilobe nucleus neutrophil - poly nucleus - lots of lobes - red and blue base in stain Megiokariocyte - can't fit through sinusoidal caps in ? - bone marrow or when going into blood stream - HUGE CELL - fractures into PLATELETS B-lymphocytes - T lymphocyte - has to go first to THYMUS for finishing

Answer 246

when leave blood - go into tissue - MACROPHAGE - very good at phagocytosis and antigen presenting cell can move into parts of bodies - MICROGlial - (neural KUPPFER (liver), ALVeolar (lung, OsteoClasts (bones)

Answer 247

can secrete two thing heparin - natural anticoag Histamine - regulates INFLAMMATION

Answer 248

Cat ionic peptide Major basic protein KILL parasites (worms) Allergy and asthma role enzyme against helminths and is toxic towards bacteria and mammalian cells in vitro. The eosinophil major basic protein also causes the release of histamine from mast cells and basophils, and activates neutrophils and alveolar macrophages.ajo

Answer 249

Great phagocytes -Microphages - respiratory burst super-oxide - into hydrogen peroxide free radicals - damage proteins, cell membranes, can kill neutrophil tag others by releasing own stuff NETS

Answer 250

plug blood loss

Answer 251

turn into plasmas cells - can secrete antibodies -

Answer 252

t helper cells - help B lymphocytes to turn into plasma cells cytotoxic T cells - induce apoptosis in infected cells Memory cells

Answer 253

``` neutrophils - 50 -70% Leukocyte 20-30 monocyte 3 -8 eosinophil 2 - 4 basophils o.5 -1 % ```

Answer 254

Low RBC or disfunctional RBC = see that on low hematocrit - >45%

Answer 255

``` signs shortness of breath - dyspnea fatigue increased workload on heart tachycardia dizzyness - sincoped ```

Answer 256

hemoglobin needs - low amount of heme if not enough iron

Answer 257

mean corpuscular volume - if low < 90 phimtoliters - MICROCYTOSIS - really small

Answer 258

blood loss women - heavy menstration not enough iron in diet - more common if vegetarian

Answer 259

iron, transfusion

Answer 260

intrinsic factor - b12 binds (parietal) to instrinsic factor- some people immune system antibodies bind to instrinsic facot - so no space for b12 to bind - so can't absorb b12 less b12 in blood stream - needed for DNA to mature and condense - so RBC HUGE MACROCYTIC RBC - can't deliver as much O2 - too big, may not make enough functional hemoglobin can get stuck in blood stream -

Answer 261

Dna maturation and synthesis and condense in RBC -

Answer 262

needed for RBC dna to mature also

Answer 263

Intramuscular injections of B12 can happen in autoimmune people or elderly

Answer 264

genetic spectrin, anchoin (anchors), band 3 and others If spectrin or anchorin lacking - can't hold into correct shape - because SPHERocal throws off MCV - hyperchromic - can't deliver o2 effectively can get stuck inside of spleen - can block - spleen gets bigger hemolysis - macrophages break down

Answer 265

R5P - NADP+ into NADPH g6dph - if don't have enough? typically - free radicals - reactive oxygen species ROS glutathyones catches free radicals - take ROS pieces to block dangerous effect - if not working right - Hines Bodies - look for these - KOOMS test - Hines body decreases flexibility of RBC shape - so less oxygen

Answer 266

point mutation missense mutation normal beta chain - "glut" - converts to VALINE (hydrophobic) normal RBC - hemoglobin form chain - polymerize - isn't always sickle shape - bad shape happens when NOT bound to O2 - changes shape - can go back and forth - cycling - can cause vasooclusive crisis can occlude blood vessels - get stuck in blood vessels - can cause swelling STUCK in spleen - penis (prolonged erection - painful), PRIO ?swelling

Answer 267

people with sickle cell anemia - resistance to malaria

Answer 268

losing blood - need to give blood - ulcer, injury

Answer 269

destruction of bone marrow - destroying myeloid stem cells affects RBC, WBC, platelets 65% idiopathic - often drugs cause or virus, radiation, etc low RBC, anemia low WBC, leukopenia low platelets - thrombocytopenia ALL together low pancytopenia Increased incidents of INFECTION - and if losing PLATELETS - bruising, can't clot as well bone marrow transplant, antibiotics, etc

Answer 270

two types - problems in chain alpha missing alpha? alphathalasemia beta mean corpuscular volume - MICROcymic anermia - this is one tyep <90 profusing, iron supplements, oxygen, bone stem cell transplant best need to finish

Answer 271

SPECTRIN - weblike protein ANKYRIN - anchors OLDER _ breaks down, wears down glycoforen band 3 protein 4.1, 4.2 all of these allow cytoplasmic structure to be flexible as OLDER - less flex, more rigid gets stuck in spleen, liver, bone marrow into sinusoidal caps

Answer 272

Globin are AA - recycled IRON broken down - combine with apoferretin - now we have ferretin - can combine w/ other ferretin - cluster ferretin HEMOCIDERAN also can be put in blood, bound to ferroportin and used for other things HEME broken in to bilirubin - toxic in blood stream - need to bind to albumin (liver) in liver - rips off albumin glucoronic acid combines with bilirubin - conjugated - water soluble - goes to bile - (major component of bile) pushed into GI system, bacteria breaks bilirubin into urobilinogen (fecal stircobilinogen) - 10% reabsorbed into blood stream, goes to kidney -"uriobilien" (when peed out) and stircobilen - brown color in feces if can't secrete bile - urine not yellow, feces not brown - if gallstone blocking if bilirubin pushed into blood stream - can see jaundice

Answer 273

albumin - if not working may affect liver (where made) and kidneys

Answer 274

removal of insoluble fibrin clot

Answer 275

albumin 50% (main job maintain plasmic onconic pressure), immunoglobulins, nonimmune globules, clotting factors (Hageman factor) and fibrinogen), enzymes, hormones

Answer 276

multi lobed when mature, immature horseshoe shaped - their job? PHAGOCYTOSIS

Answer 277

To remember the 4 categories, trying using the First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 mnemonic “ACID” (To remember that “ACID” is referring specifically to hypersensitivity reactions, consider that your skin would be fairly hypersensitive to someone pouring acid on it.). The “A” stands for Allergic/Anaphylactic (Type I), the “C” stands for Cell-mediated (Type II), the “I” is for Immune Complex Deposition (Type III), and the “D” stands for ‘Delayed’ (Type IV). Type I – Allergic. People commonly use the term “allergic” to mean “any sort of undesirable side-effect,” so you have to keep in mind that the true definition of the word means the reaction is IgE-mediated. Examples: Anaphylaxis, asthma, atopy. Type II – Cell-mediated (Cytotoxic). Examples: Goodpasture’s, Grave’s disease, Myasthenia Gravis. Type III – Immune complex deposition (Antigen-antibody). Examples: SLE, serum sickness. Type IV – Delayed: Think of “Dermatitis from contact” examples such as poison ivy exposure and cheap jewelry. Several other Type IV reactions start with “T,” which is convenient, since they happen to be “T”-Cell mediated. (Examples: the TB skin test, and transplant rejection.) Note that many of these examples all start with the same letter. Therefore, while understanding the mechanism for why each disease fits into its specific category is undeniably important, a second technique for remembering some of these categories is: AnGST –(as in, you’d probably feel angst about someone pouring acid on your skin.) A is for “anaphylaxis, asthma, atopy”, G for “Goodpasture’s disease, Grave’s disease, and myasthenia Gravis”, S for “Systemic lupus erythematous and serum sickness”, and T for “T-cell mediated diseases like the TB test and transplant rejection”.

Answer 278

oligosaccharide problem

Answer 279

small - microcytoic

Answer 280

increased pigmentation

Answer 281

abnormal RBC shapes

Answer 282

bilirubin - heme being broken down - bilirubin present hemolytic anemias - production and release of more RBCs would also see higher reticulocytosis - last stage - almost mature RBCs

Answer 283

aplastic anemia - bone marrow full of fat, not doing what it should. disorder of plueripotent stem cells in bone marrow

Answer 284

bone marrow, liver, spleen - will see hemattopoetic stem cells

Answer 285

neutrophils - hallmark of acute inflammation

Answer 286

purulent exudate - bacterial infections

Answer 287

margination of segmented neutrophils

Answer 288

selectin E - e for endothelial - w? sialys? E selectins are stored in Weibel Palade bodies dormant on endothelial cells until summoned they tether WBCs that roll along. once stop rolling integrins become involved - leading to transmigration - chemotoxic summoning phagocytois with first neutrophils and later macrophages (monocytes in the blood - macrophage when leave) others selectin P (platelets) selectin L - leukocytes

Answer 289

LATER - after selectins - form firm adhesion -

Answer 290

collagenase 4

Answer 291

lymphoctytes - typical in viruses - usually T cell origin CBC will likely show? Lymphocytosis - INCREASE in lymphocytes

Answer 292

Low levels of these WBCs

Answer 293

worms - parasites and allergies - if see these cells - that's why -

Answer 294

increased neutrophils in circulation

Answer 295

Macrophages

Answer 296

plasma cell - second time around then you have that crazy secondary response.

Answer 297

T cells - cytokines or target cells B cells secrete immunoglobulins (antibodies) Cytokines (signaling molecules) produced by helper T lymphocytes include interferon y - TGF beta,

Answer 298

eosinophils

Answer 299

A type of unstable molecule that contains oxygen and that easily reacts with other molecules in a cell. A build up of reactive oxygen species in cells may cause damage to DNA, RNA, and proteins, and may cause cell death. Reactive oxygen species are free radicals. Also called oxygen radical. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated during mitochondrial oxidative metabolism as well as in cellular response to xenobiotics, cytokines, and bacterial invasion. Oxidative stress refers to the imbalance due to excess ROS or oxidants over the capability of the cell to mount an effective antioxidant response.

Answer 300

degradation of pathogens

Answer 301

hereditary deficiency of NADPH oxidase - failure to produce superoxide anion and hydrogen peroside during phagocytosis. recurrent infections bec can't generate tosix oxygen species required for pathogen degradation.

Answer 302

not enough WBC - leukopenia

Answer 303

blood in a person's urine. The two types of hematuria are. gross hematuria—when a person can see the blood in his or her urine. microscopic hematuria—when a person cannot see the blood in his or her urine, yet it is seen under a microscope.

Answer 304

is a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys. It plays a key role in the production of red blood cells (RBCs)

Answer 305

erythropoietin - inhibits apoptosis. increased hematocrit results of bone marrow hyperplasia affecting burst forming and colony forming units of erythroid lineage. relates to stem cell viablity and cell proliferation

Answer 306

erythroid hyperplasia - RBC abnormal size or number Erythroid hyperplasia. results from increased erythropoietin production due to chronic hypoxemia (high altitude stays, chronic lung diseases, cyanotic heart defects) or (rarely) due to erythropoietin-producing tumors (for example renal cell carcinoma)

Answer 307

transferrin - It TRANSFERS cerulopasmin carries coppy ferritin is an intracellular iron storage protein -

Answer 308

initiate thrombosis and hemostasis -

Answer 309

selectins start process, but integrins are needed for diapedesis for the firm binding

Answer 310

neutrophils - lymphocytes and monocytes are for chronic inflammation

Answer 311

immunoglobins caused by serum autoantibodies -

Answer 312

Thrombin. Thrombin also activates platelets to amplify coagulation cascade

Answer 313

plasmin TO DO LIPPINCOTT 36 - 46

Answer 314

Hypoxia - low oxygen level in blood injury, high altitude, anemia

Answer 315

HIF bound by enzyme that depends on oxygen - keeps HIF from binding with EPO - which tells the world to make more RBCs so if oxygen low - HIF is free to bind with EPO - and signals to make RBC

Answer 316

myeloid, lymphoid

Answer 317

RBCs, WBCs, Platelets

Answer 318

erythropoietin

Answer 319

White blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural killer cells), and many other types of immune cells. Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce.

Answer 320

White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells.

Answer 321

Lymphocytes are a kind of white blood cell (WBC). Lymphocytes are cells of the immune system and help fight infection. Lymphocytes live in lymph nodes, but also in the bloodstream and all over the body

Answer 322

B-cells and T-cells. Abnormal numbers of lymphocytes in the blood may be temporary or long-term. Too many lymphocytes in the blood is called lymphocytosis. Too few lymphocytes in the blood is called lymphopenia. Lymphocytes may be malignantly transformed into chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and certain types of lymphoma. Lymphocytes originate from stem cells in the bone marrow.

Answer 323

T cells (Thymus) are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (relating to antiBodies). The function of T cells and B cells is to recognize specific "non-self" antigens, during a process known as antigen presentation.

Answer 324

B-cells are activated by the binding of antigen to receptors on its cell surface which causes the cell to divide and proliferate. Some stimulated B-cells become plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. Others become long-lived MEMORY B-cells which can be stimulated at a later time to differentiate into plasma cells.

Answer 325

B cells produce and secrete antibodies, activating the immune system to destroy the pathogens. The main difference between T cells and B cells is that T cells can only recognize viral antigens outside the infected cells whereas B cells can recognize the surface antigens of bacteria and viruses

Answer 326

T cells (also called T lymphocytes) are one of the major components of the adaptive immune system. Their roles include directly killing infected host cells, activating other immune cells, producing cytokines and regulating the immune response.

Answer 327

if missing b12 and folic acid - DNA can not mature properly in RBC maturation - grows too big - MACROcidic anemia - Microcidic anemia - Iron needed for HEME - RBCs too small - didn't have enough iron while maturing - need iron for hemoglobin syntheisis - if not enough iron, can't make hemoglobin - can't make function heme or hemoglobin

Answer 328

amino acids needed to create Hemoglobin carbs, fats needed to create Heme

Answer 329

spectrin WEB Ankyrin - ANCHORING spectrin to membrane allows pliability - AGing - gets rigid, tough - can't bend others - glycoflorin, band 3, 4.1, 4.2

Answer 330

when shape of RBC not flexibile - (often when older) gets stuck in sinusoidal cap in spleen, liver, bone marrow mostly spleen - macrophage eats it - breaks down hemoglobin Heme - two things - 1. IRON - bind to apoferretin - forms ferretin - combines with other ferretin - cluster - HEMOCIDERIN can also go into blood via Feroportin (very Feroimportant), bind w/ transferrin - used somewhere 2. protoporfin - Bilirubin - (biliverden first)- toxic in blood stream without binding to ALBUMIN in plasma now can circulate in blood - goes to LIVER - combines w/ glucoronic acid - conjugated - goes to gallbladder in Bile - then turns into color for urine and feces - if not much color - signifies problem HEME Globin 2alpha, 2beta (AMINO acids) - get degraded and recycled to make RBC again

Answer 331

Each hemoglobin molecule is made up of four heme groups surrounding a globin group, forming a tetrahedral structure. ... There are four iron atoms in each molecule of hemoglobin, which accordingly can bind four atoms of oxygen. Globin consists of two linked pairs of polypeptide chains

Answer 332

Haemoglobin is made up of four polypeptide subunits, two alpha (α) subunits and two beta (β) subunits. Each of the four subunits contains a heme ( contains iron) molecule, where the oxygen itself is bound through a reversible reaction, meaning that a haemoglobin molecule can transport four oxygen molecules at a time.

Answer 333

is the major iron export protein located on the cell surface of enterocytes, macrophages and hepatocytes, the main cells capable of releasing iron into plasma for transport by transferrin.

Answer 334

Kidneys -so if kidney problem where can't create erythropoetini - usually have anemia

Answer 335

Erythropoietin is produced by interstitial fibroblasts in the kidney in close association with the peritubular capillary and proximal convoluted tubule. It is also produced in perisinusoidal cells in the liver.

Answer 336

1 loss of blood - 2 lack of iron - thus not good hemoglobin content 3. abnormal hemoglobin

Answer 337

Yes and coagulation, and transports humoral agents and cells of immune system 5 -6 liters in body

Answer 338

albumin, fibrinogen, immunoglobulins, lips, hormones, vitamins 55%

Answer 339

leukocytes and platelets - 1%, in test tube - between RBC and plasma

Answer 340

to produce - must removed fibrinongen -

Answer 341

fibrin network

Answer 342

CLOTS into pieces Fibrinogen… A specialized protein or clotting factor found in blood. When a blood vessel is injured, thrombin, another clotting factor, is activated and changes fibrinogen to fibrin.

Answer 343

There are two main types of blood thinners. Anticoagulants such as heparin or warfarin (also called Coumadin) slow down your body's process of making clots. Antiplatelet drugs, such as aspirin, prevent blood cells called platelets from clumping together to form a clot. vitamin K

Answer 344

heparin, sodium citrate

Answer 345

albumin - maintains osmatic concentration - fibringogen - clots globulines - 3 types alpha - transport and osmatic concentration beta - transport and osmatic concentration gamma - immunity

Answer 346

plasma water hormones plasma proteins and regul proteins formed elements 1 RBC - 2 WBC - granular, agranular liukocytes Granular - made in blood marrow - non specific immunity neutrophils, eosiniolphils, basophils Agranular - lymphocytes, - made in bone marrow and lymph tissue - specific immunity monocytes - made in bone marrow - nonspecific immunity 3 platelets - megakatyocytes in blood marrow

Answer 347

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells.

Answer 348

1 - 2%, 1 -2 days prematuration

Answer 349

Transferrin is the major iron transport protein (transports iron through blood). Fe3+ is the form of iron that binds to transferrin, so the Fe2+ transported through ferroportin must be oxidized to Fe3+. ... Once oxidized, Fe3+ binds to transferrin and is transported to a tissue cell that contains a transferrin receptor.

Answer 350

abnormal binding of spectrin to ankyrin

Answer 351

deficienty in spectrin or ankyrin MOST COMMON

Answer 352

anemia, jaundice, splenomegaly

Answer 353

inherited - decreases surface membrane nondeformable - get trapped in splenic cords and phagocytosed

Answer 354

Osmotic fragility is determined by measuring the degree of hemolysis in hypotonic saline solution. With the unincubated test, red cell osmotic fragility is considered to be increased if hemolysis occurs in a sodium chloride concentration > 0.5%.

Answer 355

cytopathological finding of basophilic nuclear remnants (clusters of DNA) in circulating erythrocytes. During maturation in the bone marrow, late erythroblasts normally expel their nuclei; but, in some cases, a small portion of DNA remains.

Answer 356

is a term used for excessive accumulation of iron deposits called hemosiderin in the tissues.

Answer 357

``` hemosiderosis anemia splenomegaly jaundice (increased bilirubin) rbc increased osmotic fragility increased risk of parvovius b19 - infects and destroys RBC triggering recurrent aplastic crisis ```

Answer 358

Parvovirus B19 spreads through respiratory secretions, such as saliva, sputum, or nasal mucus, when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Parvovirus B19 can also spread through blood or blood products. A pregnant woman who is infected with parvovirus B19 can pass the virus to her baby.

Answer 359

glutamic acid changes to valine - point mutation 6th position

Answer 360

either alpha or beta defective synthesis - heritable

Answer 361

homo - all HBa replacecd by HbS - hetero - half

Answer 362

each sickling episode - leads to influx of calcium, causing loss of potassium and water, damaging membrane skeleton

Answer 363

anemia - causes making of lots of RBCs - HIGH ALTITUDE increases hematocrit - blood viscosity

Answer 364

number of RBC good - but each RBC has less hemoglobin than needed

Answer 365

1 - loss of blood 2. defective RBC production - not enough, or not enough hemoglobin 3. accelerated RBC destruction

Answer 366

red blood cells that are larger than normal. There also aren't enough of them. It's known as vitamin B-12 or folate deficiency anemia, or macrocytic anemia, as well. Megaloblastic anemia is caused when red blood cells aren't produced properly. inadequate amount of vitamin, DNA and RNA synthesis is slowed - mitotic division skipped, producing abmonally large cells

Answer 367

recombient erythropoietins is the COMMON treatment - signals to make more RBCS filgastin and pegfilgratim - stim proliferation, differentiation, and migration of neutrophils sargramostim - stim neutrophils, moncytes and macrophages

Answer 368

Yes, two types - granular (specific granules), agranular but BOTH CONTAIN azuorphilic granules Bactericidal/permeability-inducing protein, also stored in azurophilic granules, acts in concert with the defensins; it potently neutralizes endotoxin and is cytotoxic to Gram-negative bacteria.

Answer 369

During granulocyte differentiation in the bone marrow (BM), neutrophilic leukocyte precursors synthesize large amounts of lysosomal enzymes. These enzymes are sequestered into azurophilic storage granules until used days later for digestion of phagocytized microorganisms after leukocyte emigration to inflamed tissues.

Answer 370

lymphocytes

Answer 371

eisinophils

Answer 372

Aspirin interferes with your blood's clotting action. When you bleed, your blood's clotting cells, called platelets, build up at the site of your wound. The platelets help form a plug that seals the opening in your blood vessel to stop bleeding.

Answer 373

T cells 80% (Thymus)

Answer 374

1/3 in spleen

Answer 375

y-interferon IFN-gamma has long been recognized as a signature proinflammatory cytokine that plays a central role in inflammation and autoimmune disease. There is now emerging evidence indicating that IFN-gamma possesses unexpected properties as a master regulator of immune responses and inflammation.

Answer 376

Bone marrow

Answer 377

mast cells - release histamines, heparin, tryptase, eosinophilic chemotactic factors

Answer 378

a small area of inflammation. Granulomas are often found incidentally on an X-ray or other imaging test done for a different reason. Typically, granulomas are noncancerous (benign). Granulomas frequently occur in the lungs, but can occur in other parts of the body and head as well.

Answer 379

Globulins are a group of proteins in your blood. They are made in your liver by your immune system. Globulins play an important role in liver function, blood clotting, and fighting infection. Some globulins are produced in the liver, while others are made by the immune system. Globulins, albumins, and fibrinogen are the major blood proteins

Answer 380

Lysosomes - in all leukocytes - granular and agranular

Answer 381

chemotaxis (chemoattraction) C3b is potent in opsonization: tagging pathogens, immune complexes (antigen-antibody), and apoptotic cells for phagocytosis.

Answer 382

neutrophis, eoisinophils, basophils

Answer 383

monocytes and leukocytes

Answer 384

nonspecific

Answer 385

histamines

Answer 386

Red blood cells, most white blood cells, and platelets are produced in the bone marrow, the soft fatty tissue inside bone cavities. Two types of white blood cells, T and B cells (lymphocytes), are also produced in the lymph nodes and spleen, and T cells are produced and mature in the thymus gland

Answer 387

Lymphocytes 2400, neutro 6000, platelets 300,000 | Least? Basophils

Answer 388

5 - 3 granular, 2 agranular (monocyte, lymphocyte)

Answer 389

non-dividing terminal cells - live few days, die via apoptosis in CT Once leave blood stream - can't go back in - DIE there.

Answer 390

neutrophils - multi lobed, 2 - 5 lobes linked by fine chromatin threads, few organelles females - drumstick appearance Barr Body Baso - BI eosinophil - BI

Answer 391

1. specific - secondary - smallest, most numerous - ENZYMES - and bacterial Agents (lactoferrin, lysoZYME) 2. azurophilic - (primary) larger LYSOSOMES contains Elastase, Defensins, Myeloperosidate 3. Tertiary granules - Phosphatases and METALLOPRETEINases - which help MIGRATION through CT.

Answer 392

RBC degradation under stress

Answer 393

blood vessel dilates, blood flow slows down plays a roll - histamines secreted by mast cells send signals - endothelia puts out feelers (selectins) like hooks, and catch them -

Answer 394

No, monocytes leave blood stream and turn into macrophages, where they take up residence and fight the fight when needed

Answer 395

The Innate vs. Adaptive Immune Response. The first line of defense against non-self pathogens is the innate, or non-specific, immune response. The innate immune response consists of physical, chemical and cellular defenses against pathogens. ... The adaptive immune response is specific to the pathogen presented.

Answer 396

blood flow less -

Answer 397

any of a class of cytokines with functions that include attracting white blood cells to sites of infection.

Answer 398

? after they stop rolling??

Answer 399

ENDOTHELIAL Selectins P-Selectin E-Selectin L Selectin lntegrins VLA4 LFA1 Mac1 Immunoglobulins ICAM-1 VCAM-1 Pecam 1

Answer 400

Integrins (immunoglobulin) LFA-1 & MAC-1 (ICAM - 1) VLA-4 (VCAM- 1)

Answer 401

``` Selectins (E- Selectin) (L- Selectin) (P- Selectin). Integrins VLA-4 LFA-1 Mac-1 Immunoglobulins ICAM-1 : intercellular adhesion molecule-1 VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. PECAM-1: platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 ```

Answer 402

Selectins (E- Selectin) on endothelial (L- Selectin) - on leukocyte binds to mucin lie - GLY CAM 1 mucin like - slippery (P- Selectin). - on platelet Integrins - on LEUKOCYTES interact with Immunoglobins on endothlial VLA-4 LFA-1 Mac-1 Immunoglobulins ICAM-1 : intercellular - on endothelial - bind w VCAM-1: vascular PECAM-1: platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1

Answer 403

selected sugars - eg Sialyl - Lewis X on Leucocytes)

Answer 404

Yes, increase during inflammation after stimulus - histamine, thrombus

Answer 405

VLA4, LFA1, Mac1 - on leukocytes - normally integrins are present on leukocytes but don't bind unless activated by C5a

Answer 406

immunoglobulins - mediate FIRM adhesion

Answer 407

Leukocytes

Answer 408

vla4 Leukocyte

Answer 409

the others - LFA and mac

Answer 410

Glycam 1/Cd 34

Answer 411

Weibel Palade bodies in endothelial cells

Answer 412

is a thin membrane that lines the inside of the heart and blood vessels. Endothelial cells release substances that control vascular relaxation and contraction as well as enzymes that control blood clotting, immune function and platelet (a colorless substance in the blood) adhesion.

Answer 413

for example, Cytokines IL-1 and TNF Induce PRODUCTION of E-selectin, ICAM-1, & VCAM-1 in Endothelial Cells

Answer 414

when Chemotactic Agents Cause a Conformational Change in the Leukocyte Integrin LFA-1, which is Converted to a High-Affinity Binding State

Answer 415

ROLLING P- selectin Sialyl – Lewis X E-selectin Sialyl – Lewis X GlyCam -1/CD-34 L- selectin ADHESION VCAM-1 VLA-4 ICAM-1 LFA-1 & MAC-1 TRANSMIGRATION PECAM-1 PECAM-1

Answer 416

On leukocytes, along w/ L selectin, VLA4, FLA1, mac 1, PECAM 1

Answer 417

mechanical and chemo c5a, leukotriene B4, bacterial products

Answer 418

Expression by leukocytes of their INTEGRINS due to chemotacic agents - C5A and chemokines

Answer 419

cause integrins on neutrophils to express themselves

Answer 420

Eosinophilic asthma is a form of asthma associated with high levels of a white blood cell called eosinophils. In the United States (U.S.), an estimated 25.7 million people have some form of asthma, and 15 percent of these people have severe asthma that is difficult to control with standard medications.

Answer 421

Breaks down basement membrane!

Answer 422

asso w/ recurrent bacterial infections LAD type 1 - defective synthesis of integrins on leukocytes (CD11/CD18) LAD type 2 - Lack of sialyl lewis on leukocytes (fecosyl transfease reqd for synthesis of sialylated oligosacchardide ))

Answer 423

N-formyl-methionine Leukotriene LTB4 c5a complementary system chemokines -IL 8

Answer 424

TNFL and IL -1 Beta to keep neutriphils homing.

Answer 425

Yes, the more, the older, immature cells are horseshoe shaped nucleus

Answer 426

1 - 4 days in CT, 6 - 7 hours in blood - DIE in CT.

Answer 427

A change in the morphology or behavior of a leukocyte resulting from exposure to an activating factor such as a cellular or soluble ligand, leading to the initiation or perpetuation of an inflammatory response.

Answer 428

polymorphonuclear leukocyte - neutrophil -

Answer 429

Increased Integrin Affinity for Leukocyte Recruitment Cytoskeletal Mobilization for Chemotaxis ; Phagocytosis Production of Eicosanoids (Arachidonic Acid Derivatives): Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes, Leukotrienes, Lipoxins Lysosomal Digestion and Degranulation by Phagocytes Oxidative Burst Cytokine Secretion by Lymphocytes and Monocytes

Answer 430

exogenous BACTERAIL such as n-formal-methione endnogenous Leukotriene B4 (LT-B4) Complement system products C5a Alpha Chemokines (IL-8)

Answer 431

1. recognition and attachment 2. engulfment 3. Killing and degradation 4. degranulation of phagolysososme

Answer 432

to prepare for table - Opsonization is the molecular mechanism whereby molecules, microbes, or apoptotic cells are chemically modified to have stronger interactions with cell surface receptors on phagocytes and antibodies. This is the mechanism of identifying invading particles (antigens) by the use of specific components called opsonins.

Answer 433

(LPS) are the major outer surface membrane components present in almost all Gram-negative bacteria and act as extremely strong stimulators of innate or natural immunity in diverse eukaryotic species ranging from insects to humans.

Answer 434

The alternative pathway of the complement system is an innate component of the immune system's natural defense against infections. The alternative pathway is one of three complement pathways that opsonize and kill pathogens. The pathway is triggered when the C3b protein directly binds a microbe.

Answer 435

Antibody Binding to Bacterial Antigens Can Activate Complement Via the Classical Pathway, also Generating C3b

Answer 436

There are three pathways of complement activation: the classical pathway, which is triggered directly by pathogen or indirectly by antibody binding to the pathogen surface; the MB-lectin pathway; and the alternative pathway, which also provides an amplification loop for the other two pathways.

Answer 437

Activation of Complement by Different Pathways Leads to Cleavage of C3. The Functions of the Complement System are Mediated by (1) Breakdown Products of C3 and Other Complement Proteins, and (2) by the Membrane Attack Complex (MAC).

Answer 438

Whereby molecules, microbes, or apoptotic cells are chemically modified to have a stronger attraction to the cell surface receptors on phagocytes and NK cells. With the antigen coated in opsonins, binding to immune cells is greatly enhanced.

Answer 439

Receptors on Leukocytes Fc portion of IgG FcR (Fc receptor) Complements – C3b, C3bi CR (Complement Receptors) 1,2,3 The function of opsonins is to react with bacteria and make them more susceptible to ingestion by phagocytes. Opsonization of bacteria may occur by three different mechanisms. First, specific antibody alone may act as an opsonin. Which antibodies are Opsonins? Opsonization, or enhanced attachment, refers to the antibody molecules IgG and IgE, the complement proteins C3b and C4b, and other opsonins attaching antigens to phagocytes. 2. The Fab portions of the antibody IgG react with epitopes of the antigen

Answer 440

Triggered by Binding of Opsonized Particle to Phagocytic Receptor Neutrophil Sends Out Cytoplasmic Processes that Surround the Bacteria The Bacteria Are Internalized within a Phagosome The Phagosome Fuses with a Lysosome to Form Phagolysosome. Release of Lysosomal Contents

Answer 441

s a cytoplasmic body formed by the fusion of a phagosome with a lysosome in a process that occurs during phagocytosis. Formation of phagolysosomes is essential for the intracellular destruction of microorganisms and pathogens.

Answer 442

Several - 1. neutrophils are sluggish - actin not polymerizing normally 2. GRANULOMATOUS DISEASE failure to produce enough oxygen so killing power reduced NADPH absense - deficient respiratory burst Children with these diseases - recurrent infections.

Answer 443

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical components of the antimicrobial repertoire of macrophages, yet the mechanisms by which ROS damage bacteria in the phagosome are unclear. The NADH-dependent phagocytic oxidase produces superoxide, which dismutes to form H2O2.

Answer 444

The final step in Phagocytosis of microbes is killing and degradation Microbial killing is mediated within phagocytic cells by two mechanisms: Oxygen dependent and Oxygen independent mechanisms

Answer 445

NADPH -> superoxide -> hydrogen peroxide -> halide -> MPO -> Hypochlorous acid Following Phagocytosis, there is Rapid Activation of NADPH oxidase, which oxidizes NADPH and, in the process converts oxygen to Superoxide Superoxide is then converted by spontaneous Dismutation into Hydrogen Peroxide Myeloperoxidase converts hydrogen peroxide to HYPOCHLOROUS acid in the presence of a halide such as Cl¯ HOCl¯ is a powerful Oxidant and antimicrobial agent

Answer 446

Less Effective than oxygen dependent killing Mediators in Leukocyte Granules: Lysozyme: attacks oligosaccharides in cell membrane Lactoferrin: keeps iron away from bacteria Major Basic Proteins: deal with parasites … Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils Bacterial Permeability Increasing Protein (BPI): activate phospholipase and degrade cell membrane phospholipids Defensins: punch holes in cell membrane

Answer 447

X linked, recessive disease characterized by absence of NADPH oxidase activity Marked by Phagocytic cells that ingest but do not kill certain microorganisms Catalase positive (Staph.aureus): ingested but not killed Enzyme deficient & cannot produce H2O2 H2O2 not available as a substrate for MPO MPO-halide system of bacterial killing fails ``` Catalase negative (Streptococci): ingested and killed Streptococcus produce sufficient H2O2 to permit MPO-halide system to proceed ```

Answer 448

Strep yes, Staph.aureu no Staph ingested but not killed

Answer 449

Common 1:2,000 Autosomal Recessive Absence of MPO in Neutrophils and Monocytes Susceptible to Infections with Candida albicans, Diabetics Can develop Candidiasis Acquired MPO Deficiency May be Seen in Acute Myeloid Leukemia, Myelodysplastic Syndromes, and Lead Poisoning All Bacteria Survive (Catalase +ve and Catalase –ve) An enzyme in leukocytes (white blood cells) that is linked to inflammation and cardiovascular disease. An elevated blood level of the enzyme predicts the early risk of myocardial infarction (heart attack). Abbreviated MPO.

Answer 450

Autosomal Recessive Disease: Recurrent Infections, Neutropenia, ``` Partial Oculocutaneous Albinism, Cranial & Peripheral Neuropathy Giant Inclusion Bodies in Leukocytes: Defect in Microtubule Polymerization Microtubules Are a Components of the Cytoskeleton ``` Microtubules Help in Vesicular Transport Impaired Vesicular Transport Prevents the Fusion of Lysosomes with Phagosomes to form Phagolysosomes

Answer 451

or endolysosome, is a cytoplasmic body formed by the fusion of a phagosome with a lysosome in a process that occurs during phagocytosis. Formation of phagolysosomes is essential for the intracellular destruction of microorganisms and pathogens.

Answer 452

A 1 ½ Year Old Asian Female that Came to the Hospital with an Infection and High Fever. Her Hair Was of a Gray Color and Her Skin Was Pale and Gray. Peripheral Smear Shows Neutrophils with Giant Intracytoplasmic Granules A 3-year-old boy is brought to his pediatrician with scraped knees. He had been playing and slipped, scraping his knees on the asphalt. His knees are severely infected, with visible pus. He has a history of bleeding gums and easy bruisability. On physical exam, he is febrile, his retina is noted to be pale, and his hair is very blonde. In fact, some parts of his hair are noted to be silver. He is started on broad-spectrum antibiotics.

Answer 453

large granules 2 - 4 % of leukocytes, parasites, worms and asthma

Answer 454

1. specific - crystalloid - four major proteins MBP, (accounting for adidophilia of granules) others containing histaminase etc - cause strong cytotic effect on protozoans, worsm, helminthic parasites, 2. Zaurophilic - lysosomes - destroys parasites - and hydrolysis of antigen-antibody complexes

Answer 455

parasites, allergies - underlying endothelial | GI and bronchi, uterus, vagina - and around worm

Answer 456

decrease them - Eosinophils phagocytose antigen - antibody complexes

Answer 457

Interleukin 5 - secreted by Th2 cells - Allergen reacts with IgE receptors.

Answer 458

yes - in three ways - preventing it from becoming "thrombatic" - trying to form a clot From endothelial cells 1. Secrete nitric oxide, prostocyclin PGI2 2. heparin sulfate from Antithrombin 3 - which degrades clotting factor, 2, 9, 10 Imagine holding onto a machete - and cutting them up as they zoom by in the vessels 3. Thrombomodulin - binds Thrombin "factor 2" - thrombin reaches hand out, brushes Protein c as it goes by - degrades factors 2 and 8 Clotting factors

Answer 459

1. vascular spasm 2. platelet plug formation 3. coagulation 4. clot retraction and repair 5. fibrinolysis

Answer 460

imagine vessels, tissue damages - trying to stop blood from leaking out 1. Endothelial cells secrete ENDOTHELIN - binds to smooth muscles -> contraction 2. MYOGENIC mechanism - whenever injury/contact with smooth muscle - it contracts 3. nociceptores Pain neurons - inflammatory chemicals stimulate NOCIOceptors - their reflex causes contraction on to smooth muscle

Answer 461

Endothelial cells secrete Von WILLDEBROND factor - which blocks crevice - and platelets bind on. Meanwhile - as endothelial cells are damaged, the three normal sleeping mechanisms of platelets are inhibited. Platelet has receptor GLYCOPROTEIN 1B that binds w/ von WB factor Platelets ACTIVATED- start stacking up, and releasing granules - 3 types ADP, TxA2, Seretonin ADP and TXA2 attract platelets binding to platelets, once bound - the activated platelets travel to the injury PLATELET AGGREGATION

Answer 462

Yes - GLYCOPROTEIN 1B

Answer 463

Yes, Glycoprotein - G2B/3A on platelets - bind with fibrinogen links platelets together.

Answer 464

Contracts smooth muscles - leading to MORE vasoconstriction - enhancing vascular spasm response

Answer 465

Aggregated piles of platelets - have negative charge at surface, phosphotitil seren groups - Clotting protein Factor 12 HAGEMAN's factor interacts with surface - becomes ACTIVATED ``` 12 - 11 - 9 -8 - 7 - 3 + calcium 10 TEN X 5 - 2 (thrombin) PROTHROMBIN becomes activated - 1 (FIBRIN) ``` Thrombin acts w/ Fibrinogen - LINKS into chain links or 7 FiBRIN Activate 13 + calcium takes fibrin strands and crosslinks them, into a lattice network that settles on top of the platelet pile. FIBRIN MESH holds platelet plug - and it is also jelly like, so it SLOWS blood flow down - less blood loss.

Answer 466

Extrinsic much faster - 30 seconds - depends on factors in intrinsic pathway Intrinsic 4 - 6 minutes is independent ??

Answer 467

Factor 3 - reacts with Factor 7 - becomes ACTIVE - can do two things - can activate 9 and converge right on "common pathway" - factor 10

Answer 468

Extrinsic, Intrinsic, Fibrin Net X marks spot in center - on left at top - 12,11,9,8 on right 3, 7 below - 5 2 thrombin 1 fibrin

Answer 469

1. platelets have contractile proteins - grabs endothelial cells closer together - wound healing - brings ruptured edges of blood vessel together 2. Secrete Platelet derived Growth Factor - PDGF - triggers repair in smooth muscles and surrounding tissues - including patch creation 3. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor - VEGF - regenerates blood vessel lining

Answer 470

Endothelial cells have Tissue Plasminogen Activator - TPA Plasminogen in blood converts to PLASMIN - and degrades fibrin mesh. Also releases D DIMER - if see this - know that person had a clot formation Busts up clot

Answer 471

Aspirin! and others

Answer 472

keeps blood thin

Answer 473

Heparin works faster than warfarin, so it is usually given in situations where an immediate effect is desired. Often medication is often given in hospitals to prevent growth of a previously detected blood clot. ... Usually patients switch to warfarin when long term anticoagulant treatment is recommended.

Answer 474

Vitamin K inhibitor - Vit K needed by many clotting factors - so if inhibit, won't have clotting factors.

Answer 475

Aplastic anemia is caused by the inability of the bone marrow to produce blood cells. Pure red cell aplasia is caused by the inability of the bone marrow to produce only red blood cells.

Answer 476

Yellow bone marrow contains mesenchymal stem cells (marrow stromal cells), which produce cartilage, fat and bone. Yellow bone marrow also aids in the storage of fats in cells called adipocytes. This helps maintain the right environment and provides the sustenance that bones need to function.

Answer 477

poly, hemoglobin production begins, checkerboard

Answer 478

pro (gorgeous sky blue), baseo, poly, ortho, retic RBC

Answer 479

ortho RC are PYKNOTIC re nucleus

Answer 480

polychromatiophilic erythrocyte

Answer 481

Yes. see alot at high altitude or hemorrhages

Answer 482

lack of B12, folic acid

Answer 483

lack of production of instrinsic factor causes

Answer 484

menstrual flow, bleeding,

Answer 485

decreased production (nutrient, stem cell deficiency) increased loss - sick cell thalassemia

Answer 486

b12 - baso MACROCYTIC _BIG, pancytopenia iron defic - poly stage MICROCYTIC TINY, pencil cells

Answer 487

WBC - platelets

Answer 488

hereditary spherocytosis G6PJ Def (enzyme deficiency) Hemoglobin disorders Sickle cell Thalassemia

Answer 489

bacterial infection 11 days in total for neutrophils to mature - normal circumstances - 5 stages 1 - 2 days in CT, 6 - 8 hours can also cause by exercise, and NE

Answer 490

neutrophils can be stored in red bone marrow for four days, and then go into circulating and marginating compartment

Answer 491

no, can be exercise, or NE Adrenal gland hormones - ? increases mitotic activity of neutrophil precursors in marrow

Answer 492

medullary storage compartment releases tons of neutrophils - followed by recovery period

Answer 493

producted by endothelial cells, T cells, fibroblasts, monocytes - stims neutro, eosino, baso, monocytes, dendritic cells LESS potent that G-CSF

Answer 494

2 weeks - after 7 days no more mitosis,

Answer 495

for monocytes only -

Answer 496

5 - RBC, granulocytes marcrophage (monocyte, neutrophil) Eosino Baso (to mast)

Answer 497

8 hours, then to CT where mature intro macrophage and function for several months

Answer 498

indented nucleus - lysosome in cytoplams - increassing in number when become macrophage - largest cell found in blood -

Answer 499

``` 4 - white pulp red pulp marginal zone metallophillic ```

Answer 500

abnormal bone marrow creates maligmant clones - occurs in lymphoid tissue and bone marrow

Answer 501

RBCs laminin too

Answer 502

``` complement proteins - albumin gamma globulins antibodies alpha, beta globulin clotting proteins FIBRINOGEN ```

Answer 503

fibrinongen and clotting factors

Answer 504

on surface Type O - universal donor Type AB - universal acceptor

Answer 505

HbA1 - a2b2

Answer 506

Major basic protein,, cathepsin

Answer 507

hydrogen peroxide - h202

Answer 508

reduce inflammatin =reduce Corticosteroids are a class of drug that lowers inflammation in the body. They also reduce immune system activity. Because corticosteroids ease swelling, itching, redness, and allergic reactions, doctors often prescribe them to help treat diseases like: asthma. arthritis.

Answer 509

anemia - low rbc infection - low wbc bleeding - low platelets pain- bone marrow destruction

Answer 510

acute two kinds - Acute myeloid leukemia AML ALL kids (acute lymphoid leukemia) chronic adults myeloid CML lymphoid CLL (older people)

Answer 511

myeloid stem or blast - either

Answer 512

cancer of white blood cells

Answer 513

overprodution of immature WBCs, llymphoblasts - overprodcution and accumulation of cancerous immature WBCs

Answer 514

LIVER - stimulated megakayoctye CFU into platelets platelets bind and DEGRADE thrombopoetin!

Answer 515

next to bone marrow sinusoids

Answer 516

Presence of cells called target cells may be due to: Deficiency of an enzyme called lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase. Abnormal hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen (hemoglobinopathies) Iron deficiency. thasallamia a type - lack of a b type - lack of b

Answer 517

1 periferal, glycoproteins and coag factors 2 structureal (microtubules) network structure ACTIN filaments - maintain disc shape 3. organelle zone in cluding three types of granules alpha gran - inital phase of vessel repair, blood coat, platelet aggregation: coag, factors (VWF, paslminogen, etc delta - ADP, ATP, histamine - for ADHESION and VASOCONSTRICTION lamda - CLOT reabsorption - lysosome-like 4 Membrane zone - two channels - open canalicular and tube system for storage of calcium

Answer 518

both - intrinsic pathway with good VWF levels missing F8 and F9 gene f( - Christmas

Answer 519

granulo (inside platelet) hyoalomere - microtubule system

Answer 520

prostacyclin and NO inhibit platelet aggregation (prosta via CAMP - decrease intracellular calcium - preventing platelet activation Damaged cells synthesize LESS prostcylin - so less CAMP is sytheized SO platelets AGREGATE

Answer 521

vessel spasm, platelets bind to underflying collagen of subendothelial surface, von WB enter - binding with platelets Thrombin, etc released by platelets - signal other platelets to come CAMP goes down as calcium goes up,

Answer 522

causes platelet cross linking - avalanche of platelets binding

Answer 523

forms platelet-fibrin PLUG Thrombin also calling in more platelets, cementing PAIs (plasminogen Activator Inhibitors) limit destruction of clot (fibrinolysis

Answer 524

PG12 inhibits platelet aggregation TxA2 - VASO Constrictor

Answer 525

Aspirin - inhibits COX in platelets ADI blcoks ADP receptors IIb/IIIa inhibitors prevents crosslinking

Answer 526

Extrinsic - Factor 7 THROMBOPLASTIN Intrinsic - clot factor XII when blood contacts collagen in damaged wall

Answer 527

Thrombin does a lot - platelet aggregation TxA2 secretions - calls in leukocytes vasoconstrics, etc

Answer 528

warfarin - interferes with synthesis of coag factors - Vitamin K OR direct Thombin inhibitor

Answer 529

limits growth of clot - dissolving fibrin network Endothelial cells synthesize plasminogen to plasmin - to degrade thrombi

Answer 530

first generation - 2nd? facilitates plasminogen to plasma - UROKINASE in kidneys - yeilds active plasmin second - Tissue Plasminogen Activators - links up to Plasmin