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OSU COD 2022- D1 Fall 2018 > Histology Lecture 1- Intro to Histology and Cytology > Flashcards

Histology Lecture 1- Intro to Histology and Cytology Flashcards

1
Q

Describe Light Microscopy

A

Specimens examined via transillumination (passing light through the specimen to facilitate observation)

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2
Q

Describe Electron Microscopy

A

Provides 1.) greater resolution 2.) higher magnification

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3
Q

Two types of Electron Microscopy:

A
  1. ) Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)- uses a beam of electrons that passes through the specimen (specimen must be sliced very thin, even thinner than in light microscopy)
  2. ) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)-beam of electrons scans the surface of the specimen
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4
Q

Describe Atomic Force Microscopy

A

AFM gives greater resolution and higher magnification

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5
Q

Define “resolving power” or “resolution”

A

how far two objects must be separated from one another so that they can be distinguished as two distinct objects

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6
Q

Resolving power of human eye

A

0.2 mm

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7
Q

Resolving power of light microscope

A

0.2 micrometers

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8
Q

Resolving power of SEM

A

2.5 nm

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9
Q

Resolving power of TEM

A

0.05 nm (theoretical)/ 1.0 nm (tissue section)

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10
Q

Resolving power of AFM

A

50.0 pm

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11
Q

Resolution is dependent upon 5 things:

A
  1. Optical System
  2. Wavelength of Light Source
  3. Specimen Thickness
  4. Quality of Fixation
  5. Staining Intensity
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12
Q

This image is an expample of what type of microscopy?

A

SEM

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13
Q

This image is an example of what type of microscopy?

A

TEM

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14
Q

This image is an example of what type of microscropy?

A

SEM

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15
Q

Describe how specimens are obtained (6 steps).

A
  1. ) Acquisition of Cells or Tissues- A tissue sample of interest is removed from the body. This can lead to some distortion. Tissue can shrink. Solvents can cause components to disappear.
  2. ) Fixation-preserves the morphology, stops metabolism, avoids digestion by enzymes, kills bacteria, helps harden the tissue.

To fix, put in fixative (formalin, formaldehyde). These stabilize or crossfix proteins.

  1. Processing
    a. Dehydration – using a graded series of alcohol
    b. Clearing – using a miscible substance (speciment becomes clear)
    c. Infiltration – using a liquid embedding medium
  2. Embedding-Embed in block-orient specimen in embedding material (wax). Embed specimen and make it rigid (parafin wax or resin).
  3. ) Sectioning (using a microtome)
  4. ) Staining
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16
Q

What are the problems associated with the typical histological technique used to prepare tissues to be observed with a light microscope? (briefly explain each)

A

1.Time- when a tissue is biopsied during surgery, need to know if tissue is normal or abnormal right away

Solution: a.Use of Cryostat- -tissue is frozen, embedding medium done at same time

2.Solvent Dissolves Lipids

Solution: a.Double Fixation – First fixation with glutaraldehyde and a second fixation with osmium tetroxide (use with TEM and SEM)

3.Shrinkage of Tissues

Solution: a.Embedding in Resin-When we embed in plastics we don’t have to use heat so use for light micro or TEM

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17
Q

Describe what is happeing in the image: A-F

A

A.) Acquire tissue

B.) Fixation

C.) Dehydration

D.) Clearing

E.) Infiltration

F.) Embedding

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18
Q

Describe Acid Dyes and give an example:

A
  • carry a net negative charge; bind with cationic cell/tissue components (i.e. those that carry a net positive charge)
  • ex. eosin, orange G, and acid fuchsin
  • stain acidophilic (or eosinophilic) tissues (i.e. those tissues with a high affinity for acid dyes; these tissues exhibit acidophilia)

staining with acidic dyes is less specific; more substances within cells and the extracellular matrix exhibit acidophilia than basophilia

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19
Q

What cell structures can be visualized using acid dyes?

A

mitochondria, secretory granules, collagen fibers (as well as other extracellular fibers), general cytoplasm, basement membrane

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20
Q

Describe Basic Dyes and give an example:

A
  • carry a net positive charge; bind with anionic cell/tissue components (i.e. those that carry a net negative charge)
  • ex. toluidine blue, alcian, and methylene blue; hematoxylin, although not a basic dye, acts like one
  • stain basophilic tissue (i.e. those tissues with a high affinity for basic dyes; these tissues exhibit basophilia)
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21
Q

What structures can be visualized using basic dyes?

A

•these dyes will bind to the negative phosphate group on DNA and RNA (cell nucleus, nucleoli, RNA-rich portions of the cytoplasm); the carboxyl groups of proteins; sulfate groups of cartilage matrix (GAGs)

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22
Q

Describe the stains/dyes in the image: (A-C)

A

a. ) Hematoxylin Only (acidic dye)
b. ) Eosin Only (basic dye)
c. ) Both Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E)

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23
Q

Describe Bright Field Microscopy:

A

widely used, light passes through stained specimen

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24
Q

Describe Fluorescence Microscopy:

A

Certain sub irradiate light. Radiate tissue that has fluorescent dye attached to it. When activated by UV light, it will fluoresce and we can see using microscope.

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25
Q

This image is an example of what type of microscopy?

A

Fluorescence microscopy

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26
Q

This image is an example of what type of microscopy?

A

Fluorescence Microscopy

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27
Q

The image on the left is an example of what type of microscopy?

A

Bright field microscopy.

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28
Q

The image on the right is an example of what type of microscopy? When might you use this type of microscopy?

A

Phase-Contrast Microscopy- can use to visualize unstained specimens and visualize live cells. As light goes through different objects it slows down. The microscope realizes the change in speed and creates an image.

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29
Q

What are histochemistry and cytochemistry? What are they used for?

A

Methods for localizing cellular structures in tissues structures using enzymatic activity. You want your proteins to still be active to you want to use cryostat because want proteins unlinked. You want the enzyme still functional.

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30
Q

What are the 5 steps involved in histochemistry and cytochemistry?

A
  1. Section immersed in solution of enzyme’s substrate
  2. Enzyme acts on substrate
  3. Section put in contact with a marker compound
  4. Marker compound reacts w/ molecule produced by enzymatic action on substrate
  5. Final product (insoluble and visible by light or electron microscopy) precipitates over site
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31
Q

This image is an expample of what?

A

Utilizing histochemistry and cytochemistry to visualize enzymatic activity.

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32
Q

This image is an example of what?

A

Utilizing histochemistry and cytochemistry to visualize enzymatic activity.

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33
Q

Describe Immunochemistry

A

You’re localizing macromolecues using tag compounds. You’re tagging an antigen or protein using a labled antibody. Take sections with cryostat, incubate with antibody for protein of interest, wait for antibody to bind to protein, then location of protein can be seen using light microscopy or electron microscopy depending on what type of label you are using.

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34
Q

Lable A-T

A

a. ) microvilli
b. ) secretory vescicles
c. ) cytosol
d. ) lysosome
e. ) centrosome
f. ) centriole
g. ) chromatin
h. ) nucleoplasm
i. ) nucleolus
j. ) nuclear envelope
k. ) cytoskeleton
l. ) plasmalemma
m. ) golgi apparatus
n. ) mitochondria
o. ) peroxisome
p. ) nucluear pore
q. ) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
r. ) rough endoplasmic reticulum
s. ) fixed ribosomes
t. ) free ribosomes

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35
Q

Define “cells”

A

The basic functional units of all living things.

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36
Q

Eukaryotic cells have a ________ ________ ________ surrounded by cytoplasm.

A

Eukaryotic cells have a membrane bound nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.

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37
Q

Cytoplasm contains ________ which consists of fluid with enzymes, mRNA, factors, and organelles.

A

Cytoplasm contain cytosol which consists of fluid with enzymes, mRNA, factors, and organelles.

38
Q

Organelles are:

A
  • Cellular subunites, both membrane bound and non-membrane bound.
  • What organelles exist in the cell, give the cell its function.
39
Q

There are approximate ____ different types of cells in the human body.

A

There are approximate 200 different types of cells in the human body.

40
Q

Describe the composition and function of the plasma membrane (a.k.a. plasmalemma)

A
  • Composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and chains of oligosaccharides
  • Function: Site where materials are exchanged between the cell and its environment; regulates the ion concentration of the cytoplasm; also recognition, regulatory, and interaction functions.
  • Thickness: 7.5 to 10 nm in thickness (EM)
  • Structure: Trilaminar (EM); Fluid Mosaic Model
41
Q

What structure(s) can be seen in the image?

A

Plasma membrane (trilaminar appearance) and the fuzzy area is the extracellular matrix.

42
Q

Label A-E

A

A.) Sugar chain of glycolipid

B.) sugar chain of glycoprotein

C.) Peripheral protein

D.) Transmembrane protein

E.) Phospholipid

43
Q

Define “endocytosis”

A

bulk uptake of material across plasma membrane into the cell; folding and fusion of membrane to form vesicles.

44
Q

3 Types of Endocytosis:

A

a. Phagocytosis
b. Pinocytosis or Fluid-Phase Endocytosis
c. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

45
Q

Define “Phagocytosis”

A

“cell-eating”; phagosome; then fuses with lysosomes.

46
Q

Define “pinocytosis” or “fluid-phase endocytosis”

A

“cell-drinking”; pinocytotic vesicle; then fuses with lysosomes.

47
Q

Define “receptor-mediated endocytosis”

A

– binding of the ligand to a receptor causes coated pits made of clathrin to form; pinches off to form a coated vesicle; fuses with endosomal compartment to form endosomes.

48
Q

Define “exocytosis”

A

– release of material across plasma membrane into the extracellular space; involves vesicle fusing with plasma membrane and releasing its contents.

49
Q

Describe the structure and funtion of lysosomes:

A
  • Function: Sites of intracellular digestion and turnover of cellular components.
  • Size: 0.05μm-0.5μm
  • Structure: Membrane bound vesicles that contain about 40 different hydrolytic enzymes.
50
Q

Label A-C

A

A.) Phagocytosis

B.) Pinocytosis

C.) Receptor-mediated endocytosis

51
Q

What is an autophagosome?

A

Type of lysosome that removes non-functional organelles and excess cytoplasmic structures in process called autophagy.

52
Q

What is the organelle marked with “A” and what type of microscopy is being used to produce this image?

A

A.) lysosome

TEM is being used-stained with osmium tetroxide (2nd fixative)

53
Q

Describe the structure and funtion of ribosomes:

A
  • Function: Protein synthesis
  • Size: 20nm x 30nm
  • Structure: Composed of two different-sized subunits; the subunits are composed of rRNA and proteins; can be found free within the cytoplasm or attached to membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.

***intensely basophilic stain with Hematoxylin

54
Q

What organelle can be seen in the image and what type of microscopy was used to produce the image?

A

Ribosomes can be seen. Electron Microscopy is being used because they are very small and hard to see with light microscopy.

See in cell bodies of neurons.

Subunits are rRNA and proteins

55
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum.

A
  • Structure: Network of intercommunicating channels and sacs of membranes which enclose a space called a cisterna.
  • 2 Types:
  1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – Ribosomes on the cytosolic side of the membrane; produces proteins for secretion.

** Rough ER is very basophilic = hematoxylin stain

  1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) – Regions of ER without ribosomes; cisternae are much more tubular; important in the production of phospholipids; abundant in cells that synthesize steroid hormones (i.e. steroid synthesis).
56
Q

Label A-C

A

A.) smooth ER

B.) smooth ER cisternae

C.) rough ER

57
Q

Label A and B

A

A.) smooth ER

B.) rough ER

58
Q

Describe the structure and function of Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Complex)

A
  • Function: Completes post-translational modifications, packages, and sorts proteins synthesized in the RER.
  • Structure: Composed of smooth membranous saccules with associated vesicles and vacuoles; has a cis (i.e., entry) face and a trans (i.e., exit) face.
59
Q

Label A-F. What organelle is the white arrow pointing to?

A

A.) rough ER

B.) smooth ER

C.) cell membrane

D.) cell membrane

E.) trans face

F.) cis face

Arrow: Golgi Apparatus

60
Q

Describe the structure and function of Secretory Vesicles or Granules:

A
  • Function: Formed at the Golgi apparatus; store product until it is released via exocytosis.
  • Structure: Secretory product surrounded by membrane.
61
Q

What organelle(s) can be seen in this image?

A

Secretory vesicles/granules (the little pink dots)

62
Q

What organelle(s) can be seen in this image?

A

Secretory Vesicles/granules

63
Q

Describe the structure and function of Mitochondria:

A
  • Function: Membrane-enclosed organelles with enzymes arrays specialized for aerobic respiration and production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
  • Size: 0.5μm-1.0μm in diameter and 5μm-10μm in length.
  • Structure: Two membranes (i.e., inner and outer) and two compartments (i.e., matrix and intermembrane space); inner membrane folded to form cristae which project into matrix.

Many mitochondria in a cell tells you the cell is very active (needs lots of energy

64
Q

What organelle can be seen in this image?

A

Mitochondria

65
Q

What organelle can be seen in this image?

A

Mitochondria

66
Q

What organelle can be seen in this image?

A

mitochondria

67
Q

What organelle can be seen in this image?

A

mitochondria

68
Q

Describe the structure and function of Peroxisomes.

A
  • Function: Oxidizes various potentially toxic molecules as well as prescription drugs.
  • Size: 0.5μm in diameter
  • Structure: Spherical membrane-limited organelles.
69
Q

What organelle can be seen in these images?

A

Peroxisomes

70
Q

Describe the structure and function of Proteosomes.

A
  • Function: Degrade denatured and nonfunctional polypeptides.
  • Structure: Cytoplasmic protein (i.e. no membrane); cylindrical structure made of four stacked rings.
71
Q

Describe the structure and funtion of Microtubules.

A
  • Fine tubular structures found in cytoplasmic matrix, centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, and flagella.
  • Function: Formation and maintenance of cell shape; cellular transport of organelles and vesicles; create repeated beating motion
  • Size: outer diameter of 24nm and a dense wall 5nm thick; hollow lumen
  • Length: variable; can be many μm in length
  • Structure: composed of α and β tubulin molecules; organize to form 13 parallel protofilaments
  • In cilia and flagella, the same core structure is present – axoneme.
  • Assembly of microtubules in a 9+2 pattern.
  • Nine peripheral doublets have an outer arm of dynein which connects to next doublet; ATP-dependant interaction cause conformational changes – get repeated beating movement.
72
Q

What structure is pictured?

A

microtubules

73
Q

Cytoskeleton refers to ________, ________, and ________.

A

Cytoskeleton refers to microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

74
Q

Describe what is pictured.

A

•Assembly of microtubules in a 9+2 pattern. Nine peripheral doublets have an outer arm of dynein which connects to next doublet; ATP-dependant interaction cause conformational changes get repeated beating movement in cilia and flagella.

75
Q

Describe the structure and function of Microfilaments (Actin filaments)

A
  • Function: Allow for contractile activity within cells, including cell shape changes for endocytosis, exocytosis, and cell locomotion, moving cytoplasmic components, and cleavage during mitosis.
  • Size: 5-9nm
  • Structure: Composed of globular subunits organized into a double-stranded helix.
76
Q

Lable A and B

A

A.) Actin Filaments/Microfilaments

B.) Microtubules

77
Q

What structure is shown in this image?

A

Actin filaments/Microfilaments

78
Q

Describe the structure and function of Intermediate Filaments.

A
  • Very stable; provide mechanical strength and stability.
  • Size: 10-12nm in diameter
  • Structure: Protein subunits different in different cell types; rod-like subunit that organize into a cable-like structure.
79
Q

What two structures can be seen in this image?

A

intermediate filaments and desmosomes

80
Q

Describe the structure and function of a Centrosome.

A
  • Function: Site for generation of new cytoplasmic microtubules and the mitotic spindle; microtubules radiate from the centrosome to contribute to cell shape; also provide basal bodies for assembly of cilia and flagella.
  • Size (centriole): 200nm in diameter and 500-700nm in length
  • Structure: Non-membrane-bound organelle composed of a pair of centrioles (i.e., short, rod-like cytoplasmic cylinders made from nine microtubule triplets) oriented at right angles or obliquely to each other and amorphous pericentriolar material.
81
Q

What organelle can be seen in the image? label A and B

A

Centrosome

A.) Microtubules

B.) Centriole

82
Q

Define “inclusions”

A
  • Are not considered organelles
  • Cytoplasmic structures or deposits composed mainly of accumulated metabolites or other substances ( i.e. lipid droplets, glycogen granules, pigment deposits)
83
Q

Label A, B, C. What cytoplasmic structure are all of these classified as?

A

A.) Lipid Droplets

B.) Glycogen Granules

C.) Pigment Deposits

They are all classified as inclusions.

84
Q

What are the three main components of the nucleus?

A
  1. Nuclear Envelope
  2. Chromatin

A.Heterochromatin

B.Euchromatin

3.Nucleolus

85
Q

Label A-E

A

A.) euchromatin

B.) heterochromatin

C.) nucleolus

D.) heterochromatin

E.) euchromatin

86
Q

Describe the nuclear envelope.

A

Two parallel unit membranes separated by a narrow space; at sites where inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope fuse, nuclear pore complexes form; where regulation of the transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm takes place.

87
Q

Describe chromatin.

A

The chromosomal material in a largely uncoiled state.

A.Heterochromatin – course granules in EM and basophilic clumps in light microscopy.

B.Euchromatin – less coiled; fine granules in EM and lightly basophilic areas in light microscopy.

88
Q

Describe the nucleolus.

A

– spherical, highly basophilic structure present in nuclei of cells active in protein synthesis; lots of rRNA in this location.

89
Q

Label A-D and briefly describe what is happening at each step.

A

A.) Prophase-chromosomes condense

B.) Metaphase-chromosomes line up single file along the metaphase plate

C.) Anaphase-genetically identical daughter cells produced.

D.) Telophase-genetically identical daughter cells split into two separate cells

90
Q

Label A-J and briefly describe what is happening during each step?

A

A.) Meiosis

B.) Meiosis I

C.) Meiosis II

D.) Late interphase-synapsis and crossing over

E.) Prophase I-crossing over continues. Paired chromosomes condense.

F.) Metaphase I-Homologous chromosomes line up double file

G.) Anaphase I/Telophase I- Homologs separated into haploid daughter cells; sister chromatids remain joined.

H.) Metaphase II-chromosomes line up single file in haploid cells.

I.) Anaphase II/Telophase II- sister chromatids separate into nonidentical haploid cells.

J.) Meiosis produces haploid cells with new genetic combinations

91
Q

Define “apoptosis”

A

•The process of cell suicide or programmed cell death; leads to the production of small membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies which undergo phagocytosis by neighboring cells.

92
Q

What process is happening in the image?

A

Apoptosis

OSU COD 2022- D1 Fall 2018 (15 decks)

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