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Inleiding psychologie > H3 Genetics and evolutionary foundations of behavior > Flashcards

H3 Genetics and evolutionary foundations of behavior Flashcards

1
Q

Definition evolution

A

Long-term adaptive process, spanning generations that equips each species for life in its ever-changing natural habit.

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2
Q

Definition genes

A

Components of extremely long molecules of substance called DNA

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3
Q

What do they think is the function of DNA that does not code for proteins (junk DNA) at this point?

A

A.o. regulating activity of coding DNA

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4
Q

How are genes involved in long-term behavioral changes derived from experience?

A

Experiences activate genes, which produce proteins, which in turn alter the function of some of the neural circuits in the brain and thereby change the individual’s behavior.

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5
Q

Definition genotype

A

Set of genes that the individuals inherit

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6
Q

Definition phenotype

A

Observable properties of the body and behaviour

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7
Q

How can the same genotype produce various phenotypes?

A

By being exposed to different influences of the environment

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8
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Structures in which the DNA exists in each cell

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9
Q

Definition mitosis

A

When a cell divides to produce new cells other than egg or sperm cells > exact copies of original cell.

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10
Q

Definition meiosis.

A

Meiosis results in egg and sperm cells that are genetically unique and contain only half the full number of chromosomes.

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11
Q

How does meiosis produce egg or sperm cells that are all genetically different from one another?

A

By crossover during meiosis

  1. Chromosomes replicate
  2. exchange genetic material through crossover (random assortment of paired genes)
  3. Divide
  4. Divide again
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12
Q

Definition zygote

A

When a sperm and an egg unite the result is a single new cell called zygote. Each zygote is unique.

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13
Q

What is the advantage of producing genetically diverse offspring?

A

Genetic diversity produced by sexual reproduction promotes survival of genes by reducing the chance that all offspring will die.

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14
Q

What is homozygote vs heterozygote?

A

Homozygote: two genes that occupy a locus on a pair of chromosomes is identical
Heterozygote: two genes that occupy a locus on a pair of chromosomes is not identical

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15
Q

Definition alleles.

Do all alleles manifest dominance or recessiveness?

A

Different genes that can occupy the same locus on a chromosome and thus can potentially pair with each other are called alleles.
No, some pairs blend their effects.

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16
Q

Why might a disease caused by 2 recessive genes persist in the gene pool?

A

Because having 1 recessive gene might serve a protective function, such as in sickle-cell anemia.

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17
Q

How do genes and the environment interact to affect individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU)?

A

Inability to process phenylalanine, which is in a lot of foods. Inability is caused by defective genes. But disease is only detrimental if individual etas foods with phenylalanine.

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18
Q

How do the characteristics that derive from variation at a single gene locus (single-gene trait) differ from those that derive from variation in multiple genes (polygenic trait)?

A

Polygenic: continuous phenotype with normal distribution

Single-gene: categorial phenotype

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19
Q

Definition selective breeding.

A

Mating of individuals that lie towards the same extreme on the measure in question.
Examples:
Tyron’s breeding of rats for maze ability and Russian program of breeding foxes for tameness.

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20
Q

Definition epigenetics.

What are twho mechanisms of epigenetic effects? When are genes turned on or off?

A

Changes in gene function that do not alter its underlying structure of DNA but result in genes being switched on or off in a reversible way.
Epigenetic effects can be transmitted to children and grandchildren without any changes in the genes themselves.
Methylation (turned off when highly methylated); histone modification (turned on when histone modified).

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21
Q

What is the mendelian pattern of inheritance? And what kind of genetic control does it indicate?

A

3:1 ration in phenotype. 3=dominant

Single-gene control

22
Q

What is artificial selection

A

Human-controlled selective breeding

23
Q

What are the 4 core concepts of Darwin’s theory of natural selection?

A
  1. Overproduction: There is overproduction of offspring in each generation
  2. Variation: there is variation in features or traits within members of a generation
  3. Inheritance of individual differences: individual differences are inherited from one generation to the next
  4. Adaption to local environment: individuals with collections of traits that fit well with the local environment are more apt to survive and have more offspring than individuals whose traits do not fit as well with the local environtment
24
Q

How are genes involved in evolution? What are the sources of genetic diversity on which natural selection acts?

A

Some genetic variations are more helpful than others in survival.

  1. Reshuffling of genes in sexual reproduction
  2. Mutation. New mutations are more often harmful than helpful and natural selection weeds them out.
25
Q

How does change in environment affect the direction and speed of evolution?
How did a study of finches illustrate the role of environmental change in evolution?

A

Change in environment requires organism to adapt to new environment. The larger and more radical the change, the faster adaptation is required.
Rapid evolution = hundres or thousands of years.
Due to draught a lot of finches died because the plants that produced the seeds they ate failed to grow. Only finches with think beaks that could break open the hard shelled seeds that had remained survived.

26
Q

What are three mistaken beliefs about evolution, all related to the misconception that foresight is involved?

A
  1. Evolution is a mystical force working towards a predetermined end. Natural selection can only lead to changes that are immediately adaptive; it cannot anticipate future needs.
  2. Present-day organisms can be ranked according tot he distance they have moved along a set of evolutionary route towards some planned end.
  3. Natural selection is a moral force. The naturalistic fallacy is an informal logical fallacy which argues that if something is ‘natural’ it must be good.
27
Q

Definition functionalism.

A

Attempt to explain behavior in terms of what it accomplishes for the behaving individual.
Natural selection: traits adapt to our environment so that they are more functional for survival.

28
Q

Distal explanations vs proximate explanations of behavior.

What is another name for distal explanation?

A

Distal=ultimate causation: why, evolutionary level. They are statements of the rol that the behavior has played in the animal’s survival and reproduction over evolutionary time.
Proximate: how, mechanism. Explanations that deal not with the function but with the mechanism; they are statements of the immediate conditions both inside and outside the animal that elicit the behavior.

29
Q

What are 4 reasons for existence of traits or behaviors that do not serve survival and reproductive functions?

A
  1. Some traits are vestigal = served needs of ancestors but no longer functional today (e.g. grasp reflex)
  2. Some traits are side effects of natural selection for other traits (e.g. navels)
  3. Some traits result simply from chance = genetic drift
  4. Evolved mechanisms cannot deal effectively with every situation (e.g. guilt)
30
Q

Definiton species typical behavior

A

Every species of animal has certain characteristic ways of behaving

31
Q

What 3 pieces of evidence support the idea that many human emotional expressions are examples of species typical behavior?

A
  1. Same emotional facial expressions across cultures
  2. Same nonverbal signs across cultures
  3. Blind children manifest same emotions in same basic ways
32
Q

How do human emotional expressions illustrate the point that species typical behaviors can be modified by learning?

A

Expressions are universal but there are alsoo differences accross cultures

33
Q

How is the concept of biological preparedness related to that of species-typical behavior?

A

The anatomical structure of the species enables the species to express their typical behavior.

34
Q

Why is the concept of species-typical behavior relative rather than absolute?

A

Because species typical behavior does not stem from only biologica preparedness. Influence of environment is always involved.

35
Q

What is the difference between a homology and analogy and how can researchers tell whether a similarity between two species in some trait is one or the other?

A

Homology: common ancestor + common trait
Anology: common trait + not common ancestor
Through DNA

36
Q

How are homologies used for learning about the physiological mechanisms and the evolutionary pathways of species typical behavior?

A

Comparing different forms of a particular species typical behavior in closely related species.
How from simple to more complex form?

37
Q

How do studies of homologies between human and other primates support the view that the human greeting smile and the human happy smile have separate evolutionary origins?

A

Different mechanisms

38
Q

How can we use analogies to make inferences about the distal functions of species typical traits?

A

Might reveal commonalities of habit or lifestyle that are clues to distal functions of that trait.

39
Q

What is Triver’s theory of parental investment?

A

Conflict between mating effort and parenting effort. The sex that invests more in parenting will be more selective in choosing a mate and the other sex will compete more vigorously for accessing the other sex.

40
Q 
Definitions:
Polygyny
Polyandry
Monogamy
Promiscuity
A

Polygyny: one male mates with more than one female
Polyandry: one female mates with more than one male
Monogamy: one male mates with one female
Promiscuity: members of a group consisting of more than one male and more than one female mate with one another

41
Q

Based on Trivers’s theory of parental investment, why does high investment by female lead to polygyny, large size of males and high selectivity in the female’s choice of mate

A
  1. Females: 1x offspring a year; males: infinite offspring a year
  2. Males fight for females. Largest male has an advantage and wins more often. If he can support his own size with food
  3. Females want their genes to live on so prefer to mate with a male who wins battle, so her offspring can also win the battle
42
Q

What conditions promote the evolution of polyandry? How do sex differences within polyandrous species support Triver’s theory?

A

Female can lay more eggs during a single breeding season than she herself or her and a male can care for.
Smaller proportion of the female’s reproductive cycle sit tied to female’s body. And females are more active, aggressive courters, larger, stronger, more brightly coloured.

43
Q

What conditions promote the evolution of monogamy?

A

Equal parental investment

44
Q

For what evolutionary reasons might monogamously mated females and males sometimes copulate with patners other than their mates?

A

Females: better genes
Males: spread genes

45
Q

What appear to be the evolutionary advantages of promisciuity for chimpanzees and bonobos? In what ways is the promiscuity more fully developed for bonobos than for chimpanzees?

A

Paternal confusion and harmony.

Chimps use force to monopolize sexual activity of a female, but bonobos don’t.

46
Q

What evidence suggests that humans evolved as a partly monogamous, partly polygynous species? How is this consistent with Trivers’s parental investment theory?

A

In most non-western cultures: both poly and mono
Almost equal parental investment. Females invest more
Immune system in between gorilla (poly) and gibbon (mono)

47
Q

From an evolutionary perspective what are the functions of romantic love ans sexual jealousy, and how is this supported by cross-species comparisons?
How is sexual unfaithfulness explained?

A

Bonding. Birds also show this behavior.

Male: spread genes
Female: better genes, genes more compatible, more provisions from several males.

48
Q

Definition aggression + adaptive function

A

Behavior intended to harm another member of the same species. Help animals acquire and retain esources needed to survive and reproduce.

49
Q

How is male violence toward infants, toward other males and females explained from an evolutionary perspective?

A

Infants: female starts lactating and ovulating
Males: higher rank
Females: monopolization sex

50
Q

Definition helping and cooperation and altruism

A

Helping: any behavior that increases the survival chance or reproductive capacity of another individual
Cooperation: helping another while helping itself
Altruism: helping another while decreasing its own survival chance or reproductive capacity

51
Q

Definition kin selection

A

Behavior that seems to be altruistic came about through natural selection because it preferentially helps close relatives who are genetically most similar to the helper

52
Q

How do the kin selection and reciprocity theories take the altruism out of altruism?

A

Kin: by helping people who are related you help your own genes to survive
Recip: helping someone now, increases chances that the other will help you in the future

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