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Biology 11 > Genetic Processes Test > Flashcards

Genetic Processes Test Flashcards

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1
Q

Interphase

A

-Is the time between nuclear divisions
-Cells grow by doubling cytoplasmic components including chromosomes
-Repairs to damaged cell parts or programmed cell death
-Chromosomes are uncondensed, collectively referred to as chromatin

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2
Q

Mitosis

A

PMAT
-Asexual
-Daughter cells have the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell. (46 for humans)
-All cells in the human body are derived from the one fertilized egg cell at conception

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3
Q

Prophase

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Most plants don’t have centrioles but spindle fibres still form
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

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4
Q

Metaphase

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

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5
Q

Anaphase

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

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6
Q

Telophase

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin

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7
Q

Cytokinesis

A

-Division of the cytoplasm
-Two new daughter cells are now separate
-In animal cells, a cleavage furrow formed
-In plant cells a cell plate is formed between the two cells which becomes a cell plate later
-Cells continue back into interphase

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8
Q

Chromosomes

A

Genetic material/DNA in nucleus which is condensed, folded, and packaged with Histone Proteins. Packaged DNA structures are called Chromosomes.

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9
Q

Stages of Interphase

A

-G1 - cell grows to allow space for duplicate organelles
-S - DNA is synthesized/copied so cell knows how to replicate and perform its duties
-G2 - Cell grows more/again to prepare for mitosis

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10
Q

Deox-yribo-nucleic Acid

A

DNA, a macromolecule, made up of nucleotides. The sequence of groups of nucleotides / genes creates certain traits which are passed down to offspring

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11
Q

Structure of a Nucleotide

A

Each nucleotide is made of 3 parts:
1. A phosphate group
2. A sugar (deoxyribose)
3. A nitrogenous base ( Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thyamine)
A=T, C≡G - 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds

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12
Q

Gene

A

-Contain the instructions for the production of proteins which make up the structure of cells & control their function

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13
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

-Pairs of chromosomes that appear similar
-Contain genes for the same traits at the same locations
-May carry different alleles(forms of the gene ex. one says blond hair, the other says brown)

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14
Q

Karyotypes

A

-A cell sample is collected, treated to stop mitosis during metaphase
-stained to show banding
-Chromosomes sorted from longest to shortest, paired
-Autosomes numbered 1-22
-Sex chromosomes labeled x or y.
-Identifies missing or extra chromosomes & abnormal banding pattern.

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15
Q

2 purposes of meiosis

A
  1. Genetic reduction – reduces the # of chromosomes from diploid —> haploid
  2. Genetic recombination – gametes produced by meiosis have difference combinations of alleles (gene variations)
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16
Q

Divisions of meiosis

A
  1. Meiosis I
    -crossing over and random assortment occur
    -homologous pairs seperate
  2. Meiosis II
    -sister chromatids seperate
    -this division is most similar to mitosis
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17
Q

Crossing over

A

-During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
-Maternal chromatids may exchange bits of DNA with paternal chromatids

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18
Q

Tetrad

A

A pair of chromosomes, one paternal, and one maternal

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19
Q

Random (independent) assortment

A

-Maternal & paternal chromosomes line up randomly along the equator in metaphase I
-Allows different combinations of chromosomes
-2ⁿ possibilities – 2²³= 8,388,608 possible gametes

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20
Q

Gametogenesis

A

The process of gamete production

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21
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Meiosis results in 4 daughter cells of equal size which eventually develop into 4 mature sperm cells

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22
Q

Oogenesis

A

Meiosis results in unequal distribution of cytoplasm amongst the 4 daughter cells thus resulting in only 1 viable egg cell

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23
Q

Prophase I

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-Homologous sister chromatids pair together
-Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles
-Crossing over occurs

24
Q

Metaphase I

A

-Tetrads move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align them into position

25
Q

Anaphase I

A

-Tetrads divide
-The chromosomes pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

26
Q

Telophase I & Cytokinesis I

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin
-Cytoplasm divides
-1 cell is now 2

27
Q

Prophase II

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

28
Q

Metaphase II

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

29
Q

Anaphase II

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

30
Q

Telophase II & Cytokinesis II

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin
-Division of the cytoplasm
-Cells are now separate
-4 cells total

31
Q

Determining the gender of offspring in humans

A

-Males determine the gender
-All eggs carry 1 X chromosome
-Half of sperm carry 1 X chromosome
-Half of sperm carry 1 Y chromosome

32
Q

Properties & effects of errors during meiosis

A

-Errors can occur during crossing over/prophase I, or during separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
-Most of the time gametes don’t survive
-All cells will contain the error b/c all cells come from that one zygote

33
Q

Types of errors during meiosis

A
  1. Change in chromosome structure
  2. Change to chromosome number
34
Q

Errors in chromosome structure

A

-During crossing over, chemical bonds that hold DNA together are broken, but not re-formed correctly, or non-homologous pairs may cross over.
-Errors in chromosome structure include: (DDIT)
-Deletion – piece of chromosome is deleted
-Duplication – a section of chromosome appears 2 or more times in a row
-Inversion – a section of chromosome is inverted/ backwards
-Translocation – a piece of one chromosome detaches and gets added to another one

35
Q

Nondisjunction disorders

A

One pair of homologous chromosomes doesn’t separate during anaphase I

Result:
-Half of the gametes have 1 chromosome too few
-Other half have one chromosome too many
-Nondisjunction occurs more often when the mother is pregnant over 35

36
Q

Amniocentesis

A

-Recommended for all pregnant women over 35
-Fetal cells removed with a needle from amniotic fluid
-Karyotype of fetal cells examined for non-disjunction disorders

37
Q

Aneuploidy

A

-Having too few or too many chromosomes
-Occur when a normal gamete (n=23) joins with a gamete that has:
-n+1(24) – trisomy – child will have 47 chromosomes
-n-1(22) – monosomy – child will have 45 chromosomes

38
Q

Down syndrome

A

-Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome on the 21st pair)
-Developmental delays
-Short
-Folds around eyes
-Stubby fingers
-Large/protruding tongue
-Weak muscles
-Heart defects

39
Q

Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

-XXY male
-Tall
-Smaller testicles
-Might have breasts
-Sterile

40
Q

Turner’s syndrome

A

-XO
-Female
-Short
-Thick neck
-Will never go through puberty
-Sterile

41
Q

Artificial insemination

A

The process by which sperm are collected and concentrated, before being introduced into the female’s reproductive system

42
Q

Embryo Transfer

A

The process by which an egg that has been fertilized artificially is transferred into a recipient female’s uterus

43
Q

ART

A

Assisted reproductive technologies
-Sperm is collected, concentrated, and introduced into the woman’s vagina

44
Q

IVF

A

In vitro fertilization
-Helps those with blocked fallopian tubes conceive
-The immature egg is retrieved from the patient, then fertilized in lab glassware.
-Sperm may be injected directly into the egg

45
Q

PGD

A

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
-IVF is performed
-Wait 2 days for zygotes to divide, one cell from each developing embryo is tested
-Healthy embryos implanted

46
Q

Cloning

A

Produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms

47
Q

Gene cloning

A

Using DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA
-ex. human insulin was created in bacteria by cloning the human insulin gene

48
Q

Stages of cloning a gene in bacteria

A
  1. Isolate the segment of DNA to clone, choose a vector for cloning. Vectors act as carriers of the DNA. Common vector is a plasmid
  2. Insert the DNA into the vector. Reagents cut and join different DNA pieces together. Resulting DNA is called RECOMBINANT DNA
    3.Transformation – treat foreign cells so that they take in the recombinant DNA.
49
Q

Therapeutic cloning

A

The process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with the nucleus from a somatic donor cell of genetically identical cells. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer

50
Q

Reproductive cloning

A

The process of producing genetically identical organisms. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer

51
Q

Mendel’s three laws

A

-Law of Dominance
-A dominant train can ‘mask’ a recessive one
-Law of Segregation
-Each offspring inherits two alleles for each trait, which segregate during formation of sex cells.
-Each gamete has only 1 allele
-Law of Independent Assortment
-Different characteristics
are inherited independently of one another

52
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

The two traits mix like paint to form an average of the two. I.e red flower and white flower making pink flower.

53
Q

Co-dominance

A

The two traits are both fully expressed, and is also referred to as a ROAN. The child is speckled/spotted. I.e. all brown cow and all white cow make a specked brown and white cow.

54
Q

Multiple alleles

A

More than 2 alleles for the trait. Ex. blood types

55
Q

Human genome project

A

Consisted of scientists sequencing the entire human genome, making multiple discoveries along the way

Biology 11 (14 decks)

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