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Biology 11 > Chapter 4 Quiz > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Quiz Flashcards

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1
Q

Asexual Reproduction (cloning)

A

-One offspring from one parent
-Offspring are identical to parent cell
-Little to no genetic variation

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2
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

-Needs fusion of two sex cells (sperm & egg)
-Genetic material is a combination of the two
-Produces genetic variation in the offspring

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3
Q

Why asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Growth
  2. Repair
  3. Replacement
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4
Q

The Cell Cycle

A

-A continuous process of growth & division
-95% interphase, 5% mitosis

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5
Q

Interphase

A

-Is the time between nuclear divisions
-Cells grow by doubling cytoplasmic components including chromosomes
-Repairs to damaged cell parts or programmed cell death
-Chromosomes are uncondensed, collectively referred to as chromatin

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6
Q

Mitosis

A

PMAT
-Asexual
-Daughter cells have the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell. (46 for humans)
-All cells in the human body are derived from the one fertilized egg cell at conception

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7
Q

Prophase

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Most plants don’t have centrioles but spindle fibres still form
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

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8
Q

Metaphase

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

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9
Q

Anaphase

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

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10
Q

Telophase

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin

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11
Q

Cytokinesis

A

-Division of the cytoplasm
-Two new daughter cells are now separate
-In animal cells, a cleavage furrow formed
-In plant cells a cell plate is formed between the two cells which becomes a cell plate later
-Cells continue back into interphase

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12
Q

Chromosomes

A

Genetic material/DNA in nucleus which is condensed, folded, and packaged with Histone Proteins. Packaged DNA structures are called Chromosomes.

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13
Q

Stages of Interphase

A

-G1 - cell grows to allow space for duplicate organelles
-S - DNA is synthesized/copied so cell knows how to replicate and perform its duties
-G2 - Cell grows more/again to prepare for mitosis

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14
Q

Deox-yribo-nucleic Acid

A

DNA, a macromolecule, made up of nucleotides. The sequence of groups of nucleotides / genes creates certain traits which are passed down to offspring

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15
Q

Structure of a Nucleotide

A

Each nucleotide is made of 3 parts:
1. A phosphate group
2. A sugar (deoxyribose)
3. A nitrogenous base ( Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thyamine)
A=T, C≡G - 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds

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16
Q

Genome

A

-The complete DNA sequence in every chromosome in every cell of an organism.
-Specific to a species, but individuals within it have slight variations.

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17
Q

Gene

A

-Contain the instructions for the production of proteins which make up the structure of cells & control their function

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18
Q

Paired Chromosomes

A

-# of individual chromosomes each cell has varies from species to species
-Human somatic(body) cells have 46 chromosomes
-Organized into 23 pairs, one from mom, one from dad
-One pair is sex chromosomes - other 22 are called autosomes

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19
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

-Pairs of chromosomes that appear similar
-Contain genes for the same traits at the same locations
-May carry different alleles(forms of the gene ex. one says blond hair, the other says brown)

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20
Q

Karyotypes

A

-A cell sample is collected, treated to stop mitosis during metaphase
-sample stained to show banding
-Chromosomes are sorted from longest to shortest, and paired
-Autosomes numbered 1-22
-Sex chromosomes labeled x or y.

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21
Q

2 main types of cells we have

A

SOMATIC
-General body cells
-Mitosis
-Diploid
-2n=46
-contains pairs of homologous chromosomes
REPRODUCTIVE
-Sex cells - gametes
-Meiosis
-Haploid
-n=23 (in conception 23 from mom, 23 from dad)
-one set of chromosomes

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22
Q

2 purposes of meiosis

A
  1. Genetic reduction – reduces the # of chromosomes from diploid —> haploid
  2. Genetic recombination – gametes produced by meiosis have difference combinations of alleles (gene variations)
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23
Q

Divisions of meiosis

A
  1. Meiosis I
    -crossing over and random assortment occur
    -homologous pairs seperate
  2. Meiosis II
    -sister chromatids seperate
    -this division is most similar to mitosis
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24
Q

Crossing over

A

-During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
-Maternal chromatids may exchange bits of DNA with paternal chromatids

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25
Q

Tetrad

A

A pair of chromosomes, one paternal, and one maternal

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26
Q

Random (independent) assortment

A

-Maternal & paternal chromosomes line up randomly along the equator in metaphase I
-Allows different combinations of chromosomes
-2ⁿ possibilities – 2²³= 8,388,608 possible gametes

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27
Q

Gametogenesis

A

The process of gamete production

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28
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Meiosis results in 4 daughter cells of equal size which eventually develop into 4 mature sperm cells

29
Q

Oogenesis

A

Meiosis results in unequal distribution of cytoplasm amongst the 4 daughter cells thus resulting in only 1 viable egg cell

30
Q

Differences in gametogenesis

A

-Sperm cells are smaller than egg cells, are streamlined, and are designed for movement
-Egg cells store large amounts of nutrients in their cytoplasm for future division if the egg is fertilized

-Males produce 4 sperm cells, females produce 1 egg cell (ovum) and 3 polar bodies (which degenerate)

-At sexual maturity, males produce hundreds of millions of sperm daily
-Females are born with their oogonia halted in prophase I. At sexual maturity, one egg will complete meiosis I every month. Meiosis II only completed if fertilization occurs.

31
Q

Prophase I

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-Homologous sister chromatids pair together
-Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles
-Crossing over occurs

32
Q

Metaphase I

A

-Tetrads move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align them into position

33
Q

Anaphase I

A

-Tetrads divide
-The chromosomes pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

34
Q

Telophase I & Cytokinesis I

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin
-Cytoplasm divides
-1 cell is now 2

35
Q

Prophase II

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

36
Q

Metaphase II

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

37
Q

Anaphase II

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

38
Q

Telophase II & Cytokinesis II

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin
-Division of the cytoplasm
-Cells are now separate
-4 cells total

39
Q

Determining the gender of offspring in humans

A

-Males determine the gender
-All eggs carry 1 X chromosome
-Half of sperm carry 1 X chromosome
-Half of sperm carry 1 Y chromosome

40
Q

Properties & effects of errors during meiosis

A

-Errors can occur during crossing over/prophase I, or during separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
-Most of the time gametes don’t survive
-All cells will contain the error b/c all cells come from that one zygote

41
Q

Types of errors during meiosis

A
  1. Change in chromosome structure
  2. Change to chromosome number
42
Q

Errors in chromosome structure

A

-During crossing over, chemical bonds that hold DNA together are broken, but not re-formed correctly, or non-homologous pairs may cross over.
-Errors in chromosome structure include: (DDIT)
-Deletion – piece of chromosome is deleted
-Duplication – a section of chromosome appears 2 or more times in a row
-Inversion – a section of chromosome is inverted/ backwards
-Translocation – a piece of one chromosome detaches and gets added to another one

43
Q

Nondisjunction disorders

A

One pair of homologous chromosomes doesn’t separate during anaphase I

Result:
-Half of the gametes have 1 chromosome too few
-Other half have one chromosome too many
-Nondisjunction occurs more often when the mother is pregnant over 35

44
Q

Amniocentesis

A

-Recommended for all pregnant women over 35
-Fetal cells removed with a needle from amniotic fluid
-Karyotype of fetal cells examined for non-disjunction disorders

45
Q

Aneuploidy

A

-Having too few or too many chromosomes
-Occur when a normal gamete (n=23) joins with a gamete that has:
-n+1(24) – trisomy – child will have 47 chromosomes
-n-1(22) – monosomy – child will have 45 chromosomes

46
Q

Down syndrome

A

-Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome on the 21st pair)
-Developmental delays
-Short
-Folds around eyes
-Stubby fingers
-Large/protruding tongue
-Weak muscles
-Heart defects

47
Q

Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

-XXY male
-Tall
-Smaller testicles
-Might have breasts
-Sterile

48
Q

Trisomic female

A

-XXX
-Super female
-Very few problems
-Most are fertile

49
Q

Turner’s syndrome

A

-XO
-Female
-Short
-Thick neck
-Will never go through puberty
-Sterile

50
Q

Jacob’s syndrome

A

-XYY
-Super male
-Very tall
-Low mental ability
-Often aggressive

51
Q

Edward’s syndrome

A

-Trisomy 18
-Intellectual disabilities
-Physical disabilities
-Facial abnormalities
-Extreme muscle tone
-Early death

52
Q

Patau’s Syndrome

A

-Trisomy 13
-Intellectual disabilities
-Physical disabilities
-Organ defects
-Large triangular nose
-Early death

53
Q

Triple X syndrome

A

-XXX
-Female
-Tall
-Thin
-Menstrual irregularity

54
Q

Selective breeding

A

The process of breeding plants and animals for desirable traits

55
Q

Artificial insemination

A

The process by which sperm are collected and concentrated, before being introduced into the female’s reproductive system

56
Q

Embryo Transfer

A

The process by which an egg that has been fertilized artificially is transferred into a recipient female’s uterus

57
Q

ART

A

Assisted reproductive technologies
-Sperm is collected, concentrated, and introduced into the woman’s vagina

58
Q

IVF

A

In vitro fertilization
-Helps those with blocked fallopian tubes conceive
-The immature egg is retrieved from the patient, then fertilized in lab glassware.
-Sperm may be injected directly into the egg

59
Q

PGD

A

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
-IVF is performed
-Wait 2 days for zygotes to divide, one cell from each developing embryo is tested
-Healthy embryos implanted

60
Q

Cloning

A

Produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms

61
Q

Gene cloning

A

Using DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA
-ex. human insulin was created in bacteria by cloning the human insulin gene

62
Q

Stages of cloning a gene in bacteria

A
  1. Isolate the segment of DNA to clone, choose a vector for cloning. Vectors act as carriers of the DNA. Common vector is a plasmid
  2. Insert the DNA into the vector. Reagents cut and join different DNA pieces together. Resulting DNA is called RECOMBINANT DNA
    3.Transformation – treat foreign cells so that they take in the recombinant DNA.
63
Q

Therapeutic cloning

A

The process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with the nucleus from a somatic donor cell of genetically identical cells. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer

64
Q

Reproductive cloning

A

The process of producing genetically identical organisms. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer

65
Q

Reproductive cloning in animals

A

-Not very successful
-Birth rate ranges from 0.5-0.6%
-Cloned offspring have high mortality rate
-High disease rate
-Premature ageing

66
Q

Stem cells

A

Undifferentiated cells that can develop into different cel types of the body

67
Q

Stem cell sources

A
  1. Embryonic stem cells – obtained from embryos.
  2. Adult stem cells – somatic cells that have retained the ability to differentiate into some other cell type
  3. Induced pluripotent stem cells – specialized adult stem cells that have been induced to return to a stem-cell-like state.
68
Q

Transgenic organisms

A

An organism that have had the sequence of its genome altered for a specific purpose.

Biology 11 (14 decks)

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