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Biology 11 > Chapter 4 Quiz > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Quiz Flashcards

1
Q

Asexual Reproduction (cloning)

A

-One offspring from one parent
-Offspring are identical to parent cell
-Little to no genetic variation

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2
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

-Needs fusion of two sex cells (sperm & egg)
-Genetic material is a combination of the two
-Produces genetic variation in the offspring

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3
Q

Why asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Growth
  2. Repair
  3. Replacement
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4
Q

The Cell Cycle

A

-A continuous process of growth & division
-95% interphase, 5% mitosis

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5
Q

Interphase

A

-Is the time between nuclear divisions
-Cells grow by doubling cytoplasmic components including chromosomes
-Repairs to damaged cell parts or programmed cell death
-Chromosomes are uncondensed, collectively referred to as chromatin

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6
Q

Mitosis

A

PMAT
-Asexual
-Daughter cells have the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell. (46 for humans)
-All cells in the human body are derived from the one fertilized egg cell at conception

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7
Q

Prophase

A

-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere
-In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres attach to centrioles
-Most plants don’t have centrioles but spindle fibres still form
-Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles

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8
Q

Metaphase

A

-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate
-Spindle fibres align the pairs into position

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9
Q

Anaphase

A

-Centromeres divide
-The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell

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10
Q

Telophase

A

-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax
-Spindle fibres dissolve
-Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin

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11
Q

Cytokinesis

A

-Division of the cytoplasm
-Two new daughter cells are now separate
-In animal cells, a cleavage furrow formed
-In plant cells a cell plate is formed between the two cells which becomes a cell plate later
-Cells continue back into interphase

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12
Q

Chromosomes

A

Genetic material/DNA in nucleus which is condensed, folded, and packaged with Histone Proteins. Packaged DNA structures are called Chromosomes.

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13
Q

Stages of Interphase

A

-G1 - cell grows to allow space for duplicate organelles
-S - DNA is synthesized/copied so cell knows how to replicate and perform its duties
-G2 - Cell grows more/again to prepare for mitosis

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14
Q

Deox-yribo-nucleic Acid

A

DNA, a macromolecule, made up of nucleotides. The sequence of groups of nucleotides / genes creates certain traits which are passed down to offspring

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15
Q

Structure of a Nucleotide

A

Each nucleotide is made of 3 parts:
1. A phosphate group
2. A sugar (deoxyribose)
3. A nitrogenous base ( Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thyamine)
A=T, C≡G - 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds

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16
Q

Genome

A

-The complete DNA sequence in every chromosome in every cell of an organism.
-Specific to a species, but individuals within it have slight variations.

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17
Q

Gene

A

-Contain the instructions for the production of proteins which make up the structure of cells & control their function

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18
Q

Paired Chromosomes

A

-# of individual chromosomes each cell has varies from species to species
-Human somatic(body) cells have 46 chromosomes
-Organized into 23 pairs, one from mom, one from dad
-One pair is sex chromosomes - other 22 are called autosomes

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19
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

-Pairs of chromosomes that appear similar
-Contain genes for the same traits at the same locations
-May carry different alleles(forms of the gene ex. one says blond hair, the other says brown)

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20
Q

Karyotypes

A

-A cell sample is collected, treated to stop mitosis during metaphase
-sample stained to show banding
-Chromosomes are sorted from longest to shortest, and paired
-Autosomes numbered 1-22
-Sex chromosomes labeled x or y.

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21
Q

2 main types of cells we have

A

SOMATIC
-General body cells
-Mitosis
-Diploid
-2n=46
-contains pairs of homologous chromosomes
REPRODUCTIVE
-Sex cells - gametes
-Meiosis
-Haploid
-n=23 (in conception 23 from mom, 23 from dad)
-one set of chromosomes

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22
Q

2 purposes of meiosis

A
  1. Genetic reduction – reduces the # of chromosomes from diploid —> haploid
  2. Genetic recombination – gametes produced by meiosis have difference combinations of alleles (gene variations)
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23
Q

Divisions of meiosis

A
  1. Meiosis I
    -crossing over and random assortment occur
    -homologous pairs seperate
  2. Meiosis II
    -sister chromatids seperate
    -this division is most similar to mitosis
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24
Q

Crossing over

A

-During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
-Maternal chromatids may exchange bits of DNA with paternal chromatids

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25
Tetrad
A pair of chromosomes, one paternal, and one maternal
26
Random (independent) assortment
-Maternal & paternal chromosomes line up randomly along the equator in metaphase I -Allows different combinations of chromosomes -2ⁿ possibilities – 2²³= 8,388,608 possible gametes
27
Gametogenesis
The process of gamete production
28
Spermatogenesis
Meiosis results in 4 daughter cells of equal size which eventually develop into 4 mature sperm cells
29
Oogenesis
Meiosis results in unequal distribution of cytoplasm amongst the 4 daughter cells thus resulting in only 1 viable egg cell
30
Differences in gametogenesis
-Sperm cells are smaller than egg cells, are streamlined, and are designed for movement -Egg cells store large amounts of nutrients in their cytoplasm for future division if the egg is fertilized -Males produce 4 sperm cells, females produce 1 egg cell (ovum) and 3 polar bodies (which degenerate) -At sexual maturity, males produce hundreds of millions of sperm daily -Females are born with their oogonia halted in prophase I. At sexual maturity, one egg will complete meiosis I every month. Meiosis II only completed if fertilization occurs.
31
Prophase I
-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere -Homologous sister chromatids pair together -Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell -Spindle fibres attach to centrioles -Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles -Crossing over occurs
32
Metaphase I
-Tetrads move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate -Spindle fibres align them into position
33
Anaphase I
-Tetrads divide -The chromosomes pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell
34
Telophase I & Cytokinesis I
-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax -Spindle fibres dissolve -Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin -Cytoplasm divides -1 cell is now 2
35
Prophase II
-Chromatin condense into chromatids and pair off into sister chromatids held by a centromere -In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell -Spindle fibres attach to centrioles -Nuclear membrane fades and dissolves to allow for separation of the chromosomes and cell organelles
36
Metaphase II
-Sister chromatids move towards the middle of the cell/equatorial plate -Spindle fibres align the pairs into position
37
Anaphase II
-Centromeres divide -The sister chromatids pull apart and move to opposite poles of the cell
38
Telophase II & Cytokinesis II
-Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell, begin to lengthen & relax -Spindle fibres dissolve -Nuclear membrane begins to form around each new mass of chromatin -Division of the cytoplasm -Cells are now separate -4 cells total
39
Determining the gender of offspring in humans
-Males determine the gender -All eggs carry 1 X chromosome -Half of sperm carry 1 X chromosome -Half of sperm carry 1 Y chromosome
40
Properties & effects of errors during meiosis
-Errors can occur during crossing over/prophase I, or during separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids -Most of the time gametes don’t survive -All cells will contain the error b/c all cells come from that one zygote
41
Types of errors during meiosis
1. Change in chromosome structure 2. Change to chromosome number
42
Errors in chromosome structure
-During crossing over, chemical bonds that hold DNA together are broken, but not re-formed correctly, or non-homologous pairs may cross over. -Errors in chromosome structure include: (DDIT) -Deletion – piece of chromosome is deleted -Duplication – a section of chromosome appears 2 or more times in a row -Inversion – a section of chromosome is inverted/ backwards -Translocation – a piece of one chromosome detaches and gets added to another one
43
Nondisjunction disorders
One pair of homologous chromosomes doesn’t separate during anaphase I Result: -Half of the gametes have 1 chromosome too few -Other half have one chromosome too many -Nondisjunction occurs more often when the mother is pregnant over 35
44
Amniocentesis
-Recommended for all pregnant women over 35 -Fetal cells removed with a needle from amniotic fluid -Karyotype of fetal cells examined for non-disjunction disorders
45
Aneuploidy
-Having too few or too many chromosomes -Occur when a normal gamete (n=23) joins with a gamete that has: -n+1(24) – trisomy – child will have 47 chromosomes -n-1(22) – monosomy – child will have 45 chromosomes
46
Down syndrome
-Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome on the 21st pair) -Developmental delays -Short -Folds around eyes -Stubby fingers -Large/protruding tongue -Weak muscles -Heart defects
47
Klinefelter’s syndrome
-XXY male -Tall -Smaller testicles -Might have breasts -Sterile
48
Trisomic female
-XXX -Super female -Very few problems -Most are fertile
49
Turner’s syndrome
-XO -Female -Short -Thick neck -Will never go through puberty -Sterile
50
Jacob’s syndrome
-XYY -Super male -Very tall -Low mental ability -Often aggressive
51
Edward’s syndrome
-Trisomy 18 -Intellectual disabilities -Physical disabilities -Facial abnormalities -Extreme muscle tone -Early death
52
Patau’s Syndrome
-Trisomy 13 -Intellectual disabilities -Physical disabilities -Organ defects -Large triangular nose -Early death
53
Triple X syndrome
-XXX -Female -Tall -Thin -Menstrual irregularity
54
Selective breeding
The process of breeding plants and animals for desirable traits
55
Artificial insemination
The process by which sperm are collected and concentrated, before being introduced into the female’s reproductive system
56
Embryo Transfer
The process by which an egg that has been fertilized artificially is transferred into a recipient female’s uterus
57
ART
Assisted reproductive technologies -Sperm is collected, concentrated, and introduced into the woman’s vagina
58
IVF
In vitro fertilization -Helps those with blocked fallopian tubes conceive -The immature egg is retrieved from the patient, then fertilized in lab glassware. -Sperm may be injected directly into the egg
59
PGD
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis -IVF is performed -Wait 2 days for zygotes to divide, one cell from each developing embryo is tested -Healthy embryos implanted
60
Cloning
Produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organisms
61
Gene cloning
Using DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA -ex. human insulin was created in bacteria by cloning the human insulin gene
62
Stages of cloning a gene in bacteria
1. Isolate the segment of DNA to clone, choose a vector for cloning. Vectors act as carriers of the DNA. Common vector is a plasmid 2. Insert the DNA into the vector. Reagents cut and join different DNA pieces together. Resulting DNA is called RECOMBINANT DNA 3.Transformation – treat foreign cells so that they take in the recombinant DNA.
63
Therapeutic cloning
The process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with the nucleus from a somatic donor cell of genetically identical cells. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer
64
Reproductive cloning
The process of producing genetically identical organisms. Uses SCNT – somatic cell nuclear transfer
65
Reproductive cloning in animals
-Not very successful -Birth rate ranges from 0.5-0.6% -Cloned offspring have high mortality rate -High disease rate -Premature ageing
66
Stem cells
Undifferentiated cells that can develop into different cel types of the body
67
Stem cell sources
1. Embryonic stem cells – obtained from embryos. 2. Adult stem cells – somatic cells that have retained the ability to differentiate into some other cell type 3. Induced pluripotent stem cells – specialized adult stem cells that have been induced to return to a stem-cell-like state.
68
Transgenic organisms
An organism that have had the sequence of its genome altered for a specific purpose.

Biology 11 (14 decks)

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