Final Exam Study Guide Exam 2 Flashcards
the quickest way for a drug to reach the brain is via
an intravenous injection
a drug that mimics the actions of a neurotransmitter ans acts at the neurotransmitter is
a direct antagonist
drugs that bind with and stimulate presynaptic autoreceptors can reduce
the production of the neurotransmitter
a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in stimulating wakefulness
histamine
an enzyme that destroys the monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin
monoamine oxidase
the drug curare blocks __ causing ___
nicotine receptors; paralysis
a drug’s ___ is it’s margin of safety; the difference between an effective dose and a dose that produces toxic side effects
therapeutic index
___ labeling methods are used to trace axons from the soma to the terminal button
anterograde
a stereotaxic apparatus is used to
hold an animal or human head in place and precisely locate areas in the brain
____ are taken up by the terminal buttons and carried back to the cell bodies, making cell bodies easier to se
retrograde labels
in histology, what is the main purpose of staining tissue?
it allows for a clearer picture of neural architecture
lesions, aspiration and knife cuts are examples of which approach to study CNS
ablation
which imaging technique uses blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signals?
fMRI and fNIRS
which technique can be used to stimulate the living human brain?
TMS
which measure allows imaging and direct stimulation of individual photoreceptors in the retina?
adaptive optics
___ is a recording of gross electrical potential from the scalp
EEG
a microtome is an instrument used to
section the brain into slices
histological substance that labels a protein produced in the nucleus of a neuron in response to synaptic stimulation, in order to study metabolic activity
fos
locus coeruleus is a
part of the brain involved in arousal
___ is a disorder caused by pathologies in a system of neurons that secret ___
cataplexy; orexin or hypocretin
depicts the relation between drug dose and magnitude o drug effect
dose-response (DR) curve
drug effects diminish with repeated administration
tolerance
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
Acetylcholinergic
nicotinic
muscarinic
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
monoamines
catecholamines - dopamine - norepinephrine - epinephrine Indolamines - serotonin
neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
amino acids
glutamate
GABA
Glycine
binds to and activates receptors
agonist
binds to but does not activate receptors
antagonist
binds to alternative site, keeps channels open
indirect agonist
binds to alternative site, prevents ion channel from opening
indirect antagonist
schedule I drugs
no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse
schedule II drugs
a high potential for abuse, with use potentially leading to severe psychological or physical dependence
schedule III drugs
a moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence
schedule IV drug
low potential for abuse and low risk of dependence
- primary neurotransmitter secreted by the efferent axons of the CNS
- all muscular movement accomplished by the release of this neurotransmitter
- appears to be involved in regulating REM sleep, perceptual learning and memory
acetylcholine
an acetylcholine antagonist; prevents release by terminal buttons
botulinum toxin
a drug that inhibits the activity of acetylcholinesterase
neostigmine
an ionotrotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by nicotine and blocked by curare
nicotinic receptor
a metabolic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine
muscrinic receptor
a drug that blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
atropine
a drug that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and causes paralysis
curare
The biologically active for of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used to treat Parkinson’s disease because of its role as a dopamine agonist
L-Dopa
a system of neurons originating in the substantia nigra and terminating in the neostriatum; appears to play a role in the control of movement
nigrostriatal system
a system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleu accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus; appears to play a role in the reinforcing effects of drugs that are commonly abused
mesolimbic system
a system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental are and terminating in the prefrontal cortex; appears to influence formation of short-term memories, planning, and preparing strategies for problem solving
mesocortical system
a drug that blocks the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of the catecholamines
AMPT
precursor to catecholamines
tyrosine
a drug that interferes with the storage of monoamines in synaptic vesicles; serves as a monoamine antagonist
reserpine
a drug that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine; also known as Ritalin; used to treat children with attention deficit disorder
methylphenidate
a class of enzymes that destroy the monoamines; dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin
monoamine oxidase
a drug that blocks the activity of monoamine oxidase; acts as a dopamine agonist
deprenyl
a drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine D2 receptors
chlorpromazine
one of the catecholamines; a neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
norepinephrine
one of the catecholamines; a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; serves as a neurotransmitter in the brain
epinephrine
- found in neurons of the brain and in the autonomic nervous system
- almost every region of the brain receives input from these neurons
- implicated to play central role in vigilance or attractiveness in the environment
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
a drug that inhibits the activity of the enzyme dopamine-beta-hydroxylase and thus blocks the production of morepinephrine
fusaric acid
a dark-colored group of noradreneric cell bodies located in the pons near the rostal end of the floor of the fourth ventricle
locus coeruleus
an enlarged region along the length of an axon that contains synaptic vesicles and releases a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator
axonal varicosity
thought to play a role in the regulation of mood, the control of eating, sleep, dreaming, and arousal
serotonin
also thought to be involved in the regulation of pain
serotonin
the amino acid tryptophan is the precursor
serotonin
a drug that inhibits the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis pf 5-HT and serves as a serotongeric antagonist
PCPA
a drug that inhibits the reuptake of 5-HT
used to treat depression, OCD and some anxiety disorders
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
a drug that stimulates the release of 5-HT
Fenfluramine
a drug that stimulates 5-HT2a receptors
LSD
a drug that serves as a noradrenergic and serotonergic agonist , also known as ecstasy, has excitatory and hallucinogenic effects
MDMA
A specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a calcium channel that is normally blocked by Mg2+ ions; has several other binding sites
NMDA receptor
an ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by AMPA
AMPA receptor
an ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a sodium channel; stimulated by kainic acid
kainate receptor
a category of metabolic receptors sensitive to glutamate
metabotropic glutamate receptor
A drug that blocks the glutamate binding site on NMDA receptors and impairs certain forms of learning
AP 5
a drug that binds with th PCP binding site of the NMDA receptor and serves as an indirect antagonist of glutamate
PCP (phencylclidine)
- an amino acid
- the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord
GABA
a drug that inhibits the activity of GAD and thus blocks the synthesis of GABA
allyglycine
a direct agonist for the GABA binding site on the GABA-A receptor
muscimol
a direct antagonist for the GABA Binding site on the GABA-A receptor
bicuculline
a category of anxiolytic drugs; an indirect agonist for the GABA-A receptor; these drugs are used for their tranquilizer effects
benzodiazepine
an anxiety-reducing effect
anxiolytic
- amino acid
- appears to be the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord
glycine
a direct antagonist for the glycine receptor
- causes convulsions and death even in small doses
strychnine
neurons of the CNS release large variety of these
- a neuron manufactures both the ___ and the enzymes that it needs to break them apart
peptides
- synthesis takes place in the soma
- delivered to the terminal buttons by axoplasmic transport
- most appear to serve as neuromodulators, while some act as neurotransmitters
peptides
a class of peptides secreted by the brain that acts as opiates; drugs that effect opioid receptors reduce pain
endogenous opiod
a drug that blocks opiod receptors; often used to treat heroin overdose
naloxone
a lipid; an endogenous ligand for receptors that bind with THC
endocannabinoid
the first cannabinoid to be discovered and probably the most important one
anandamide
a drug that blocks cannabinoid CB, receptors
rimonabant
- combination of ribose and adeenine
- released by glial cells and neurons
- dilates blood vessels and increases supply of cellular nutrients
adenosine
a gas produced by cells in the nervous system; used as means of communication between cells
nitric oxide
the enzyme responsible for production of nitric oxide
nitric oxide synthase
histological techniques
- remove blood from brain
- remove brain
- slice brain
use stains to highlight selective neural elements
which type of stain would you use for the cell body
cresyl violet
which type of stain would you use for myelin?
weil stain
which stain would you use for membrane?
golgi stain
a microscope that provides 3-D info about the shape of the surface of a small object
scanning electron microscope
a histological method that labels the axons and terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region
anterograde labeling method
anterograde tracer derived from kidney beans
PHA-L
A histological method that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of particular proteins of peptides
immunocytochemical method
a histological method that labels cell bodies that give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region
retrograde labeling method
a dye that serves as a retrograde label that is taken up by the terminal buttons and carried back to the cell bodies
fluorogold
- a weakened form of a pig virus; used for transneuronal tracing which labels a series of neurons that are interconnected synaptically
- this method permits anterograde and retrograde directions
pseudorabies virus
the use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a 2-D picture of a slice through the body.
Computerized tomography (CT)
a technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
imaging method that uses modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in living human brain
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
a sugar that enters cells along with glucose but is not metabolized
2-deoxyglucose
a procedure that locates radioactive substances in a slice of tissue; the radiation exposes a photographic emulsion or a piece of film that covers the tissue
autoradiography
the use of a device that reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer in a living human brain
positron emission tomography (PET)
a modification of the MRI procedure that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain (BOLD signal- Blood Oxygen Level Dependent)
functional MRI (fMRI)
- figure 8 coils produce magnetic pulse
- temporarily disrupts activity in target region
- basically create “temporary lesion”
TMS
a procedure for analyzing chemicals present in the interstitial fluid through a small piece pf tubing made of a semipermeable membrane that is implanted in the brain
microdialysis
human exposure to insecticides that contain acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (acetylcholine agonists) could cause intense, bizarre dreams and walking hallucinations
organophosphate insecticides
do we experience alpha, delta or theta activity in stages 1 and 2 of sleep cycle?
theta
do we experience alpha, delta or theta activity during Stage 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle?
delta activity (synchronized)
slow wave sleep
delta, non-rem sleep
where can we find beta activity during the sleep cycle?
REM sleep
restoration is reflected as a sleep function in
SWS
vigilance, consolidation (learning and memory), flushing of useless info, and facilitation of brain development are reflected as sleep functions for
REM sleep
secretion inhibits sleep
norepinephrine
destruction causes narcolepsy
- peptide produced by neurons whose cell bodies are located in hypothalamus
orexin
destruction of this area results in total insomnia, coma and even death
group of GABAergic neurons in the preoptic area whose activity suppresses alertness and behavioral arousal and promotes sleep
ventrolateral preoptic area
insomnia
medication issues
sleep apnea
- sleep attack
- cataplexy (fully conscious)
- sleep paralysis
narcolepsy
- night terrors
- sleep-talking
- sleep-walking/ eating
- REM sleep behavior disorder
parasomnias
- contains a biological clock that governs circadian rhythm
- receives input from retina (light resets the clock)
- lesions disrupt circadian rhythms
- clock cells do not require direct neural connections to control circadian rhythms
suprachiasmatic nucleus
