Final Exam Flashcards
Grade inflation findings
findings in 2020 based on an analysis of colleges that collectively enroll about 1 million students, with a wide range of competitiveness in admissions represented among the institutions (IV league schools, mid majors etc.)
What are the key findings from the grade inflation study?
-GPA’s in 4 year colleges are rising at the rate of 0.1 points per decade and have been doing so for the past 30 years
-“A” grades are by far the most common grade (MODEL GRADE) on both 4 year and 2 year college campuses (more than 42% of grades are A’s across the country)
-At 4 year schools, awarding of A grades has been going up 5-6% points per decade and A grades are now 3 times more common than they were in 1960
-in the recent years, the percentage of D and F grades at 4 year colleges has been stable and the increase in A grades is not associated with the D and F grades, the increase is associated with fewer B and C grades
-Community college grades appear to have peaked
what was the graduation rate for community colleges and 4 year colleges?
CC -18%
4YR - a little over 50%
What is the difference between the official curriculum and the hidden curriculum?
Official curriculum is what is expressly offered in an educational program. (what is learned in a classroom
Hidden curriculum is the most important and is things you learn outside of the classroom, including learning time management, money management, how to interact with other cultures (asian culture with clock example, symbol of death), independence, self-confidence, and learning how to handle adversity
What does the argument against education “Education is a credentialing mechanism” say?
-Diplomas may become more important than classroom content
-Credentials may reinforce social structure
What is cultural capital?
it is the advantages that well-to-do parents (upper socio-economic class) usually provide their children due to schools being contested spaces and cultural capital may help some groups get entrance into primary and secondary schools and colleges - that are not as available to other groups
What was James Colemans 1966 study of between school effects in American education?
It was the result of the civil rights act of 1964, required the commissioner of education to prepare a report on educational inequalities coming from differences in ethnic background, religion and national origin. James Coleman was the appointed director of the research program
What was the population of Colemans study?
500,000 students, 60,000 teachers in 4,000 schools
What did Coleman find in his study?
The outcome was a study based on one of the most extensive research projects ever carried out in sociology
He found that:
-there are still highly segregated schools
-schools were more similar than expected in terms of resources
-a gap in standardized achievement tests by race
achievement depends on condition of home, neighborhood, and peer environment
what is IQ?
it is a score attained on tests of symbolic and/or reasoning abilities
it is a score derived from a collection of tests which rank academic achievement within a certain age group
What is intelligence?
it is the level of intellectual ability, particularly as measured by IQ (intelligence quotient) tests
What is considered to be “average” intelligence?
A IQ score of 100
What is the Mensa Club?
its a club open to individuals who have attained a scored within the top 2% of the general population of an approved intelligence test that has been properly administered and supervised
-there is no other qualifications or disqualifications for initial membership eligibility
What are the alternative measurements of intelligence that were NOT covered by the IQ tests?
Emotional intelligence, or the ability to identify, assess and control one’s emotions have been considered equally as important
Creativity and Practical intelligence, otherwise known as “street smarts”
what is tracking?
it is diving students into groups that receive different instruction on the basis os assumed similarities in ability or attainment (NOT always explicit)
What is the Labeling theory in this chapter?
Tracking is a form of labeling, which may lead to self-fulfilling prophecy
Why is there an achievement gap?
what are the 4 reasons behind it?
because there is a disparity on a number of educational measures (such as, standardized tests and high school graduation rates) between the performance of groups of students, especially groups defined by gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
- Over and over again it seems like your zip code matters
the class-based achievement gap is 30-40% larger in 2017 than it was for children born in the 1970’s
the class-based gap in 2017 is nearly 2 times as larger as the black-white achievement gap
4 reasons growing achievement and sockionomic gap:
1.Middle class parents tend to invest more heavily in their children cognitive development
2.The income gap is widening
- Co-residential married parents may have more time to engage in their children in reading and writing
4.Wealthier families can afford homes in safer neighborhoods with better schools
what is the gender gap in this chapter?
it is the difference between women and men, especially as reflected in social, political, intellectual, cultural, or economic attainments or attitudes
-girls are more likely than boys to attend a 4 year college immediately following up high school graduation, and this gap is particularly announced among African Americans
-e.g, in 2015 (or 2017), 46% (or 50.3%) of girls who completed high school enrolled in a 4 year school compared to 42% (or 37.2%) of boys
Since the mid 1990’s a higher amount of women than men have have graduated from 4 year colleges each year (todays gender gap places girls ahead of boys in terms of intelligence since they are doing better in schools today
What is information poverty?
when people have little or no access to information technology, like computers. these individuals are known as “the information poor”
Chapter 17
What is religion?
it is a set of beliefs adhered (followed) by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense awe or wonder together with ritual practices
-it is a form of culture
-it is a social institution
-its an example of social stratification
-its an example of in vs. out groups
-it is a cultural universal
What are some general categories of where we spoke about religion before?
Theism
- A belief in god
-Monotheism: belief in 1 god
-Polytheism is belief in more than 1 god
Social Solidarity
- Study of suicide
Sociologists who study religion…
- are especially concerned with the social organization of religion
- are not concerned with whether religious beliefs are true or false
- have often viewed religion as a major source of social solidarity in that they offer believers common norms and values (what holds people together)
-find that if a societies members adhere to competing religions, religious differences may lead to destabilizing social conflicts (what drives people apart)
-explain the appeal of religion in terms of social forces rather than personal, spiritual or psychological factors
what were the 3 stages in which Aguste Comte seen societal development developing in?
- Theological: human beings rely on supernatural agencies to explain what they can’t ( Least rational and scientific stage)
- Metaphysical: human beings attribute effects to abstract ideas but poorly understood the causes
- Positive: human understanding is based on scientific observation, evidence, and rational inquiry (leads to progress and social harmony and is the most rational and scientific stage)
what did Karl Marx think about religion?
He believed:
-religion is them “opium of the people” (serves as a drug)
-it numbs people to the truth about society
-it gives people hope in their hopeless lives
-the powerful (bourgeoisie) use religion to press the working class (proletariat)
is marxism a religion?
People who followed Marx seen it as one although Marx did not
What were the functions of religion according to Emile Durkheim
Social Solidarity (Study of Suicide)
- the more communally religious, the less likely a person is to commit suicide
Social Control
- religion defines norms, values, and specific boundaries
-religion influences behavior
-religion is one of the social institutions
Emotional Support
-support in terms of crisis
-its a reference point for answers and the meaning of life
Profane (comes from the word profanity)
-something that belongs to mundane, everyday world
Scared
-something that inspires attitudes of awe or reverence among believers in a given set of religious ideas
What did Max Weber believe about religion?
He believed Protestantism supports capitalism
-he argued that the religious ideas of groups such as the Calvinists played a role in creating the capitalistic spirit
what are the 2 things that limits capitalism according to Weber and why?
Hinduism and Confucianism due to materialism
What is one branch of Protestantism?
Calvinism
-calvinists believe in predestination (god has already selected and decided whom he will grant salvation)
what is secularization?
it is a process of decline in the influence of religion(fewer people engage in religious activity)
-if one is not in complete disconnection from religion, then having a more conservative view is possible
How is secularization measured?
-membership (number of members)
-social influence, wealth and other prestiges of religious organizations (wealth is one of the many examples)
eg. the Catholic Church owns 177 million acres of land. it is one of the largest landowners in the world
what is religiosity?
the strength of ones religious beliefs
What are the religious trends?
-Christians are declining, both as a share of the U.S. population and in total number
-the biggest declines have been with Protestants and among Catholics
-the decline of christians in the US has corresponded with the continued rise in the share of Americans with no religious affiliation ( aka religious “nones”)
-younger adults are far more likely than older ones to identify as religious “nones” (Americans
-men are more likely than women to identify as non-religious
-the share of Muslims in the US is growing
-in 2010 there were more christians
Chapter 18
what is the sick role?
According to Talbot Parsons…
it is the social expectations of the status of someone who is sick and how they interact with others while they are sick
According to Parsons original sick role, the sick person is :
- not held personally responsible for his/her poor health
- entitled to certain rights and privileges, such as being released from normal responsibilities
- expected to take sensible steps to regain their good health, such as consulting a medical expert and agreeing to becoming a patient
Who updated the Sick Role?
Eliot Freidson
what are the new kinds of sick roles according to Eliot Freidson?
The Conditional Sick Role
-this applies to those suffering from a temporary condition
-they are expected to get well fairly soon
-eg. the common cold, while someone with chronic bronchitis would be given more time to get better
The Unconditionally Legitimate Sick Role
-incurable, terminal diseases or medical conditions
-since there is nothing that can be done for them to get well, they are automatically entitled to occupy the sick role
The Illegitimate Sick Role
-HIV/AIDS or other perceived “self-inflicted” conditions. These people may be “stigmatized” (devalued due to being a member of a certain group) by others
Physicians Role
-a role society has created that defines appropriate behavior for people who are doctors (medical professionals)
-society expects doctors to restore the sick back to their normal routines
-they confirm the patients claim of being sick
-they use their medical training to diagnose and treat any illness
how did symbolic interactionist aka micro level view health?
They focused on the small group reactions, the sick individuals adjustments to illness, how illness affects daily life and how illness affects sense of self
what is the difference between Illness work, everyday work, and biographical work?
Illness work
-refers to activities involved in managing a medical condition, such as taking medications, doing diagnostic tests, or undergoing physical therapy
Everyday work
-refers to the management of daily life while sick, such as maintaining relationships with others, taking care of household affairs, and pursuing professional or personal interests while sick
Biographical work
-involves the process of incorporating the illness into ones life (learning to live with it), such as making sense of it and developing ways of explaining it to others. Such a process can help people with mental and physical illness restore meaning and order to their life
what are the health affects of obesity and what is obesity?
-cardiovascular diseases
- type 2 diabetes
-sleep apnea
-osteoarthritis
-cancer
-medically obese is when a persons Body Mass Index (BMI) is at least 30.0 (when how much you weigh is higher than supposed to be based on your height)
what are the social effects of obesity?
-social stigma and discrimination (for those who are visually obese), health care discrimination, and employment discrimination (less job opportunities)
Social Isolation and exclusion
-this can lead to loneliness and depression
Lower Educational Attainment
-studies have shown a link between obesity and lower educational achievement, particularly for women
Fewer Friendships
-people with obesity might withdraw socially due to self-consciousness or experience bullying or teasing
In the study on obesity what were the 6 drawings of?
the drawings depicted
1st. 1 child with no visible disabilities (“healthy”)
2nd. 1 child holding crutches with a brace on the left leg (“crutches”)
3rd. 1 child sitting in a wheelchair with a blanket covering both legs (“wheelchair”)
4th. 1 child with no left hand (“hand”)
5th. 1 child with facial disfigurement on the left side of the mouth (“face”)
6th. an obese child (“obese”)
the drawings were marched (controlled) for height, facial appearance, and clothing to make sure everything looks similar and right
-the drawings depicted children whose features resembled those of white children
-boys received drawings of boys, and girls received drawings of girls
-the questionnaire was administered in the classroom by homeroom teachers
-the homeroom teachers were instructed not to given children any input about what answers put on the questionnaire and to prevent any discussion among the children throughout the procedure
-teachers instructed the children to look carefully at the 6 pictures, displayed alongside and below the instructions , and to circle the picture of the child that they liked best, then second best etc. until all 6 rankings were obtained
-despite the instructions, 43 children circled a a given picture more than once or did not complete the questionnaire, 19 at one school and 24 at the other
-these questionnaires were excluded from the analyses and the results were based on the remaining 415 (Final #)
what was Research study on obesity key takeaways?
the Study by Rutgers University students JD Latner and Aj Stunkard (2003): “Getting Worse: The Stigmatization of obese children” replicated a 1961 study of stigma in childhood obesity
Participants included: 458 children (initial #) in the 5th-6th grade (53% female)
(71% white) from Northern New Jersey
-the original 6 drawings used in the 1961 study were presented to participants in a questionnaire
What were the results of the study with children on obesity?
-children in both the 2003 and the 1961 study liked the drawing of the obese kid the least
-the obese child was significantly less in the 2003 study than in 1961
-“healthy” was the most liked
- girls from the study liked obese children less than boys did
-boys disliked functional disabilities and girls disliked appearance related ones
- the difference in liking between the healthy and obese child was 41% greater in 2003 than in 1961
what is complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)? what is the population of people who take part in this?
- a wide range of approaches and therapies for treating illness and promoting well-being that generally falls outside of standard medical practices
According to a national institutes of health report, in the US approximately:
-38% of adults used CAM in the last year
-12% of children are using some form of CAM
-CAM use among adults is greater among women and those with higher levels of education and higher incomes
What therapies has use increased for?
-Natural (or organic) products (not processed)
-Acupuncture
-deep breathing exercises
-Meditation
-massage therapy
-yoga
What are the 2 books of Erving Goffman’s that we discussed?
The presentation of self in everyday life, 1956
Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity, 1963
What was stigma originally referred to as? What did Goffman believe?
-body tattoos that were cut or burned into the skin of those who are considered deviant, like slaves, criminals, or traitors (those thought to be “blemished”, “polluted”, or “ to be avoided”
-Goffman believed that “society establishes the means of categorizing people and their attributes (the quality or characteristic of the person) felt to be ordinary and natural for members of each of these categories
-Goffman wrote that a stranger who is different from others can be seen as “bad”, “dangerous”, or “weak”
-that person is “reduced” in our minds from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one”
-such a difference is a “stigma”, or also a failing, a shortcoming, or a handicap
-Goffman limited stigma, not at all “undesirable attributes”, but “only to those which are incongruous (do not match) with our stereotype of what a given type of individual should be”
-stigma is a relationship between an attribute and a stereotype
what is the difference between discredited and discreditable people?
Discredited people (doesn’t get what they deserve)
-those who have a differentness that is already identified, or the differentness is evident on the spot.” (visible handicaps)
Discreditable people (potentially discredited)
- this who have not yet been stigmatized on the basis of their differentness, nor is the differentness immediately perceivable. (invisible handicaps)
Normals do these things
what are “normals”?
-by Goffman’s definition, normals discriminate against those that they believe have a stigma. they treat those with a stigma as “not quite human”
- they construct “stigma theory”, an ideology to explain the stigmatized inferiority and account for the danger that people represent
- they use stigma terms like cripple, bastard, or moron about those they stigmatize
What are the 3 types of stigma according to goffman?
-Abominations of the body (visible handicaps)
-Blemishes of the individuals character (personality, mental health) (invisible handicaps)
Tribal stigma of race, nationality and religion
chapter 19
what is demography? how long ago was it invented?
it is the statistical study of human population
it was invented a century and a half ago
How many people have ever lived?
-approximately 108 billion people have ever lived
-approximately 7% of all people born are living today
when did the US census begin?
1790
what do demographers measure?
- the size of populations
- they attempt to explain trends (up and downwards)
-they document the distribution of populations across the world, down to smaller areas like zip codes and “census tracts”
the world population growth is:`
relatively stable
what is the world population clock?
a digital counter that shows how many people are estimated to be living on Earth right now. Constantly updating based on how many babies are born, how many people die, and how many people move from one place to another. It helps us keep track of how the world’s population is changing over time.
what is the population of the world and the US?
US: approximately 331-333 million
World: approximately 7.9 billion
What is crude birth rate?
its the statistical measure representing the number of live births within a given population per year, calculated in terms of the number of births per 1000 members (# of live births/total population * 1000)
Crude= general & non-specific
-combines both male and female babies
-good for overall country-to-country comparisons
What is the name of the place with the largest and smallest population?
China 1.4 billion
Vatican City 800
what is the fertility rate?
the average number of live-born children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society
what is the fecundity rate?
the number of children women are biologically capable of bearing. It is physically possible for a normal woman to bear a child every year during the period when she is capable of conception
- this rate is almost always higher than the fertility rate
what is the crude death rate?
also known as mortality rates
, (# of deaths/ population * 1000)
its useful for preparation, and getting an absolute number
it can be misleading as some countries have more old people than others
what is the infant mortality rate?
of babies that die before age 1/# of live births * 1000
-declining rates of infant mortality are the most important influence on increasing life expectancy
what is the natural increase rate
=Crude birth rate - crude death rate
if positive = POPULATION GROWTH
if negative = POPULATION DECLINE
what is doubling time?
it is the time it takes for a certain level of population to double
-calculated by 70/current birth rate
example: a 2% growth rate will produce a doubled population in 35 years
what is the difference between life expectancy and life span?
Life expectancy is how many years the average person is expected to live
- in 1900, life expectancy at birth in the US was about 40 years
-today it has increased to nearly 79 years
Life span is the approximate-maximum length of life that is biologically possible for a member of a given species
-the verified oldest person ever is 122 years old Jeanne Calment of France died in 1997
what is the “immortal jellyfish”?
it is called the turritopsis dohrnii and it is capable of reverting back to its juvenile form after it reaches sexual maturity
humans have a natural life span of 38 years but it has more than doubled thanks to advances in medicine
what is Malthus
