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exchange and transport systems Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

the rate of heat loss depends on what

A

surface area

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2
Q

animals with a compact shape have a what surface area

A

small surface area

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3
Q

why do compact animals have a small surface area

A

minimises heat loss from their surface

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4
Q

what are the 2 main adaptations for gas exchange surfaces

A

large surface area

thin walls( one cell thick)

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5
Q

where do single celled organisms undergo diffusion

A

on their outer surface

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6
Q

why do single celled organism not need a gas exchange system

A

they have a large SA
thin surface and short diffusion pathway

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7
Q

where does oxygen enter and leave in fish

A

in water through the mouth and passes out through gills

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8
Q

what are the thin plates that make up the gills called

A

gill filaments

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9
Q

what do the gill filaments do

A

give a big surface surface area for exchange of gases

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10
Q

what are the gil filaments covered in

A

tiny structures called lamellae

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11
Q

what is the function of the lamellae

A

increase surface area even more

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12
Q

how are he lamellae adapted to carry out diffusion

A

thin surface layer of cells to speed up diffusion and lots of capillaries

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13
Q

explain the counter-current system in fish

A

blood flows through lamellae in one direction and water flows in opposite

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14
Q

why is the counter current system good in fish

A

it maintains a large concentration gradient between water and blood

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15
Q

is there a higher concentration of water or blood naturally in fish and what does this mean

A

water so oxygen diffuses from water into the blood

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16
Q

what do insects use for gas exchange

A

air filled pipes called trachae

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17
Q

how does air move into the trachea of insects

A

by pipes called spiracles

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18
Q

what do the trachae break of into

A

smaller tracheoles

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19
Q

how are the trachae adapted and why

A

thin, permeable walls an go directly to individual cells

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20
Q

how does carbon dioixide move out of insects

A

towards the spiracles to be released from the atmosphere

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21
Q

how do insects move air in and out

A

rhythmic abdominal movements

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22
Q

what is the main gas exchange surface on plants

A

on the surface of the mesophyll cells

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23
Q

how is the surface of the mesophyll cells adapted for gas exchange

A

have a large surface area

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24
Q

where do gases move in and out of in a plant

A

pores in the epidermis called stomata

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25
Q

what do insects do if they are loosing too much water

A

close their spiracles using muscles

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26
Q

how are insects adapted to conserve water

A

have a waxy cuticle and tiny hairs around spiracles which reduces evaporation

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27
Q

how are plants adapted to conserve water

A

guard cells loose water making them flaccid which closes the pores

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28
Q

what kind of plants are adapted for extreme conditions

A

xerophytes

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29
Q

how are the stomata adapted in xerophytes

A

they are sunk in to trap moist air , reducing concentration gradient between leaf and air , reducing evaporation

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30
Q

what is inspiration

A

breathing in

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31
Q

what does the layer of hairs on the epidermis do for xerophytes

A

traps moist air round the stomata

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32
Q

what do the curled leaves on xerophytes do

A

protect the stomata from wind

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33
Q

what happens in the first stage of inspiration

what happens in the second stage of inspiration

A

external intercostal and diaphragm muscles contract

ribcage moves up and out, diaphragm flattens volume of thoracic cavity increases

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34
Q

what happens in the 3rd stage of inspiration

A

lung pressure decreases as volume of thoracic cavity increases

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35
Q

what direction does air always flow and what does this mean for the lungs

A

from high pressure to low pressure so from trachea to lungs

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36
Q

what kind of process is inspiration and what does this mean

A

active process so requires energy

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37
Q

what is expiration

A

breathing out

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38
Q

what happens in the first 2 stages of expiration

A

external muscles relax and internal contract

ribcage move downwards and inwards and diaphragm becomes curved

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39
Q

what happens to the volumes in expiration

  • thoracic cavity
  • lungs
A

volume of TC decreases so air pressure increases

air is forced out of the lungs as it moved down pressure gradient

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40
Q

can expiration be forced

A

yes

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41
Q

what happens during forced expiration

A

external intercostal muscles relax and internal contract
moving ribcage down and in

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42
Q

what can the movement of the intercostal muscles be described as during expiration

A

antagonistic

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43
Q

what are the 2 ways alveoli are adapted for gas exchange

A

thin exchange surface- one cell thick so a short diffusion pathway

large surface area

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44
Q

what is tidal volume

A

volume of air in each breath

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45
Q

what is ventilation rate

A

number of breaths per minute

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46
Q

what is FEV

A

forced expiratory volume - maximum amount of air you can force out

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47
Q

what happens when someone has pulmonary tuberculosis

A

cells build up a wall of bacteria in the lungs

infected tissue dies and gas exchange susyem is damaged

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48
Q

what does reduced tidal volume lead to

A

less air that can be inhaled with one breath

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49
Q

what are some common symptoms of tuberculosis

A

persistent cough, coughing up blood or mucus
chest pain
shortness of breath
fatigue

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50
Q

what is fibrosis and what can it be a result of

A

formation of scar tissue in the lungs

infection or exposure to asbestos/ dust

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51
Q

why is scar tissue bad for the lungs

A

thicker and less elastic then normal tissue

so lungs arent able to expand so cant hold as much air

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52
Q

what does fibrosis result in for the lungs

A

reduced tidal volume

reduction in rate of gaseous exchange

fast ventilation rate

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53
Q

what happens in asthma

A

airways become inflamed and irritated

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54
Q

what happens during an asthma attack

A

smooth muscle lining contracts and lots of mucus is produced

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55
Q

what is a result of the mucus production in asthma

A

constriction of the airways, reduced air flow so FEV reduced

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56
Q

what are some symptoms of asthma

A

wheezing

shortness of breath

increased ventillation rate

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57
Q

what is emphysema caused by

A

smoking or air pollution

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58
Q

what does emphysema cause

A

inflammation which attracts phagocytes to the area which produce an enzyme which breaks down elastin

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59
Q

what impact does emphysema have

A

destruction of alveoli walls which reduces surface area and causes a gas exchange decrease

60
Q

what impact does emphysema have on ventilation rate and why

A

increases as they try to increase amount of air reaching lungs

61
Q

what did the EU do as a result of high emisions

A

set upper limits for the 4 major pollutants in the atmosphere

62
Q

what happens to molecules in digestion

A

large molecules are hydrolysed and broken down into smaller ones

63
Q

what enzyme breaks down carbohydrates

A

amylase into maltose

64
Q

where is amylase produced

A

in the salivary glands

65
Q

what is a membrane- bound disaccharide and why is it significant

A

enzymes that are attached to cell membranes of epithelial cells

they help break down disaccharides into monosaccharides

66
Q

what do lipase enzymes do

A

catalyse the breakdown of lipids into monoglycerides and fatty acids

67
Q

what bond does lipase break in lipids

A

ester bond

68
Q

where are lipases made and where do they work

A

made in pancreas and work in small intestine

69
Q

what are bile salts and what is their purpose

A

produced in liver ad they emulsify lipids

70
Q

what does emulsify mean

A

break down

71
Q

why is the breaking down of lipids so important

A

breaking down lipids increases their surface area

72
Q

what happens once the lipid has been broken down

A

monoglycerides and fatty acids stick with bile salts to form micelles

73
Q

what do endopeptidases aim to do

A

hydrolyse peptide bonds within a protein

74
Q

what is an example of an endopeptidase

A

pepsin

75
Q

what do exopeptidases aim to do

A

hydrolyse peptide bonds at ends of protein molecules. they remove single AA from proteins

76
Q

what are dipeptidases

A

exopeptidases that work specifically on dipeptides

77
Q

where are dipeptidases often located

A

on the cell surface membrane of epithelial cells in the small intestine

78
Q

how is glucose and galactose absorbed across cell membranes

A

by active transport with sodium ions using a co- transporter protein

79
Q

how are monoglycerides and fatty acids absorbed

A

micelles help them towards the cell membrane - which break up and reform

they can then diffuse through

80
Q

how are amino acids absorbed across cell membrane

A

co-transport

81
Q

how are sodium ions used in the absorption of AA

A

sodium ions are actively transported out of ileum into blood. creating conc gradient . they the diffuse into ileum through sodium- dependant transporter proteins

82
Q

what is the circulatory system made up of

A

heart and blood vessels

83
Q

aorta

A

oxygenated blood to body

artery

84
Q

pulmonary artery

A

deoxygenated blood to lungs

85
Q

vena cava

A

vein

deoxygenated blood to heart

86
Q

renal vein

A

deoxygenated blood to kidney

87
Q

renal artery

A

oxygenated blood to kidney

88
Q

how are the arteries adapted

A

walls are thick and muscular and have elastic tissue to stretch and recoil

inner lining folded to allow artery to stretch

89
Q

what is the function of arterioles

A

form a network through the body and blood is directed to areas of demand

90
Q

how are veins adapted

A

wide lumen with very elastic muscle tissue

have valves to stop backflow of blood

91
Q

what are the main adaptations of the capillaries

A

found near cells in exchange tissues so theres a short diffusion pathway

walls are one cell thick

capillaries increase surface area

92
Q

what is a capillary bed

A

a network of tissues in capillaries

93
Q

what is tissue fluid

A

fluid that surrounds cells in fluid

94
Q

at start of capillary bed what is hydrostatic pressure like

A

greater than hydrostatic pressure in tissue fluid

95
Q

what does this difference in hydrostatic pressure cause

A

fluid to be forced out into spaces around the cell forming tissue fluid

96
Q

as fluid leaves what happens to hydrostatic pressure

A

it reduces in capillaries so its lower at the venule end ( one closest to veins)

97
Q

what happens to tissue fluid as a result of fluid loss

A

the water potential at the venule end is lower then water potential from tissue fluid

so some water re- enters capillaries from tissue fluid by osmosis

98
Q

what type of blood does each side of the heart pump

A

left side pumps oxygenated and right side pumps deoxygenated

99
Q

how is the left ventricle specialised for its job and why

A

left ventricle thicker, more muscular walls then right as it needs to powerfully contract to pump blood around body

100
Q

why do the ventricles have thicker walls then the atria

A

have to push blood out of heart whereas atria push blood to ventricles

101
Q

what is atrioventricular valves( AV ) function

A

link atria to ventricles to stop blood flowing back into atria when ventricles contract

102
Q

what is the semi- lunar (SL) valves function

A

link ventricles to pulmonary artery and aorta

103
Q

what happens in the first stage of the cardiac cycle

A

ventricles are relaxed and atria contract

104
Q

describe the first stage of the cardiac cycle

A

atria contract

decrease volume and increase pressure pushing blood into ventricles.

105
Q

describe the second stage of the cardiac cycle

A

atria relax and ventricles contract, increasing pressure. high pressure forces AV valves shut to prevent back- flow. pressure in ventricles higher then aorta and PA so forces SL valves open

106
Q

describe the final stage of the cardiac cycle

A

ventricles and atria relax
higher pressure in aorta and PA closes SL valves.
blood returns to heart in atria to refill again

107
Q

if damage occurs to the endothelium what happens

A

white blood cells and lipids clump together forming fatty streaks

108
Q

what is an atheroma and how does it form

A

WBC, lipids and connective tissue build up

109
Q

why are atheromas bad

A

they partially block lumen and restrict blood flow causing blood pressure increase

110
Q

what does affinity mean

A

ability to bind with oxygen

111
Q

haemoglobin has a high what

A

affinity for oxygen

112
Q

what is the product of oxygen joining with haemoglobin

A

oxyhaemoglobin

113
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen a measure of

A

oxygen concentration

114
Q

the greater the concentration of dissolved oxygen the what

A

the higher the partial pressure

115
Q

when does oxygen form oxyhaemoglobin

A

where there is a high pO2

116
Q

when does oxyhaemoglobin unload oxygen

A

when there is a low pO2

117
Q

do alveoli have a high or low pO2

A

high

118
Q

why does loading happen in the alveoli

A

high pO2

119
Q

when respiration happens does pO2 get higher or lower

A

lower

120
Q

describe what happens when pO2 is high

A

high affinity
so high saturation of oxygen

121
Q

describe what happens where pO2 is low

A

low affinity
low saturation of oxygen

122
Q

what shape can the affinity curve be described as

A

S shaped

123
Q

what does haemoglobin at high partial pressures of co2 do

A

gives up oxygen more readily

124
Q

what does respiration do to the rate of oxygen unloading

A

increases it

125
Q

why does respiration increase the rate of oxygen unloading

A

higher pCO2 levels

126
Q

which way does dissociation curve shift when higher levels of CO2

A

to the right

127
Q

organisms that live in low oxygen concentration environments have a what affinity

what way does curve shift

A

higher then human

left

128
Q

organisms that have high metabolic demand have a what

what way does curve shift

A

low affinity for oxygen

right

129
Q

Name a three-way adaptations for efficient, diffusion in insects

A

Large number of tracheoles for a large surface area.
Thin walls in tracheoles  a short diffusion pathway.
Use of oxygen and carbon dioxide, bring the steep diffusion gradient. 

130
Q

What are the three main ways insects prevent water loss?

A

Waterproof, exoskeleton
Small surface area to volume ratio.
Spiracles.

131
Q

How does the counter current system work in fish?

A

Water flows in the opposite direction of blood 

132
Q

Describe the process involved in the transport of digestive lipid molecules from ileum to lymph vessels

A

Micelles contain bile salts and fatty acids.
They help make fatty acids more soluble.
Fatty acids are absorbed by diffusion.
Triglycerides we found in cells.
Vesicles move to cell membrane.

133
Q

How does the movement of sodium out of the cell help with the absorption of glucose into the cell lining of the ileum

A

Create a concentration gradient.
So sodium moves out by co-transport.
An amino acids move in by facilitated diffusion

134
Q

Describe the role of micelles in the absorption of fats into the cell lining of the ileum

A

My cells contain bile salts and fatty acids.
How to make fatty acids more soluble
So they can diffuse into the ileum easier.

135
Q

Describe the role of enzymes in the digestion of protein is in a mammal

A

Hydrolysis breaks peptide bonds.
Endopeptidases produces shorter polypeptide
Exopeptidase act at the end of the protein and produce dipeptides.
Dipeptidase as produces single amino acids. 

136
Q

What are the advantages of lipid droplets?

A

The increase the surface area so faster hydrolysis

137
Q

What is the significance of the Goldie apparatus in the absorption of lipids?

A

Processors and packages lipids back into triglycerides.
Combines lipids with proteins
Packages lipids For release

138
Q

Describe the advantage of the counter current principal in gas exchange across a fish gill

A

Water blood flow in opposite directions.
Maintains a steep concentration gradient.
Diffusion along the lamallae

139
Q

Describe the pathway taken by oxygen molecule from the alveolus to the blood

A

Through Alveolar epithelium
Into Endothelium 

140
Q

Why does a mouse have a higher metabolic rate than a horse?

A

Larger surface area to volume ratio.
Mouse has higher rate of respiration.
Mouse has faster heat loss.

141
Q

what is the role of the rough ER for chylomicrons

A

proteins synthesised by rough ER
vesicle formations

142
Q

what is a chylomicron

A

contain triglycerides, cholesterol, and other lipids; they have proteins on their surface

143
Q

describe the path by which oxygen goes from alveolus to the blood

A

-alveolar epithelium
- through capillary epithelium

144
Q

what is the role of the diaphragm in inhilation

A

diaphragm contracts
flattens increasing chest vol
reduced pressure allows air to enter

145
Q

why is there a difference in thickness between pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

A

high pressure of artery smooths out blood flow

146
Q

explain how the thickness of the aorta wall change over time during cardiac cycle

A
  • aorta stretches as pressure increases
  • aorta recoils as ventricles relax
    -maintains smooth pressure

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