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exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

metabolism

A

emergent property of life tat arises from orderly interactions between molecules
made of chemical reactions arranged as intersection metabolic pathways

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2
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a product
each step of the pathway is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

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3
Q

catabolic pathways

A

release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones
cellular respiration

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4
Q

anabolic pathways

A

consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones
photosynthesis

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5
Q

bioenergetics

A

study of how energy flows through living organisms

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6
Q

energy

A

capacity to cause change

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7
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy associated with the relative motion of objects

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8
Q

thermal energy

A

kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules
heat

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9
Q

heat

A

transfer from one object to another with thermal energy

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10
Q

potential energy

A

energy that is not kinetic

it is energy that matter posesses because of location or structure

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11
Q

chemical energy

A

potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

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12
Q

thermodynamics

A

the studyi of the energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter

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13
Q

isolated system

A

unable to exchange either energy or matter with suroundings

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14
Q

open system

A

energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings

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15
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

also known as principle of conservation of energy

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16
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe

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17
Q

entropy

A

measure of disorder, randomness

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18
Q

spontaneous process

A

a process that can occur without an input of energy

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19
Q

free energy

A

portion of a system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell

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20
Q

exergonic reaction

A

proceeds with a net release of free energy

change in G is negative because the chemical mixture loses free energy

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21
Q

endergonic reaction

A

one that absorbs free energy from its surroundings

because this kind of reaction essentially stores free energy in molecules the change in G is positive

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22
Q

equillibrium

A

term used to describe a state of maximum stability

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23
Q

energy coupling

A

the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

atp is responsible for mediating most energy coupling in cells

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24
Q

adenosine triphosphate

A

contains a sugar ribose, with the nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of 3 phosphate groups bonded to it
in addition to its role in energy coupling, ATP is also one of the nucleoside triphosphates used to make RNA

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25
phosphorylated intermediate
the recipient with the phosphate group covalently bonded to the ATP
26
enzyme
macromolecule that acts like a catalyst
27
catalyst
chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
28
activation energy
the intial investment of energy for starting a reaction | abbreviated Ea
29
substrate
the reactant an enzyme acts on is referred to as this
30
enzyme-substrate complex
when the enzyme binds to the substrate
31
induced fit
the shape change of an enzyme to make an active site fit even more snugly around the substrate
32
cofators
nonprotein helpers for catalytic activity may be bound tightly to the enzyme as permanent residents, or they may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate
33
coenzyme
cofactors that are organic | vitamins are coenzymes
34
competitive inhibitors
reduce productivity of an enzyme by blocking substrates from entering active sites
35
noncompetitive inhibitors
do not directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the active site instead they impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme
36
allosteric regulation
any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a seperate site
37
regulatory molecules
molecules that naturally regulate enzyme activity in a cell behave like reversible noncompetitive inhibitors
38
activator vs inhibitor
the binding of an activator to a regulatory site stabilizes the shape that has functional active sites, whereas the binding of an inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
39
cooperativity
substrate molecule binding to one active site in a multi subunit enzyme triggers a shape change in all the subunits, thereby increasing catalytic activity and other active sites. Amplifies the response of enzymes to subtrates
40
feedback inhibition
a metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway
41
fermentation
the partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen
42
aerobic respiration
oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel
43
cellular respiration
includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes organic compounds + oxygen = carbon dioxide +water+energy
44
redox reactions
electron transfers in chemical reactions
45
oxidation
loss of electrons from one substance
46
reduction
addition of electrons to another substance
47
reducing agent
electron donor
48
oxidizing agent
electron acceptor
49
NAD+
coenzyme and electron carrier | nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
50
electron transport chain
consists of a number of molecules, mostly proteins, built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the mplasa membrane of aerobically respiring prokaryotes
51
glycolysis
occurs in the cytosol | begins the degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate
52
citric acid cycle
breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide is completed
53
oxidative phosphorylation
mode of atp synthase that is powered by the redox reactions of the electron transport chain
54
substrate level phosphorylation
enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP rather than adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation
55
acetyl CoA
once inside the mitochondrion, pyruvate undergoes a series of enzymatic reactions that remove CO2 and oxidizes the remaining fragment, forming NADH from NAD+. The product is highly reactive compound called acetyl Coenzyme A
56
prosthetic groups
nonprotein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes
57
cytochromes
most of the electron carriers between ubiquinone and oxygen are proteins called cytochromes
58
ATP synthase
enzyme that makes ATP froADP and inorganic phosphate | works like an ion pump running in reverse
59
chemiosmosis
the process where energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP
60
proton-motive force
H+ gradient that results from the ETC | emphasizing the capacity of the gradient to perform work
61
FADH2
acts as NADH in liver cells only
62
alcohol fermentation
pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps the first step releases carbon dioxide from the pyruvate, which is converted to the two carbon compound acetaldehyde. In the second step, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol. This regenerates the supply of NAD+ needed for the continuation of glycolysis.
63
Lactic acid fermentation
pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2.
64
obligate anaerobes
some organisms that carry out only fermentation or other anaerobic respiration they cant survive in the presence of oxygen
65
facultative anaerobes
other organisms that can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration
66
photosynthesis
the chloroplasts of plants capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy that is stored in sugar and other organic molecules
67
autotrophs
self feeders they sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living beings producers of the biosphere
68
heterotrophs
unable to make their own food they live on compounds produced by other organisms consumers
69
mesophyll
the tissue in the interior of the leaf
70
stomata
pores that gas enters into and exits from in the leaf
71
stroma
dense fluid in chloroplast
72
thylakoids
third membrane system made of sacs called thylakoids | suspended within the stroma
73
chlorophyll
green pigment that gives leaves their color | resides in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast
74
light reactions
steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy in thylakoids
75
photophosphorylation
the light reactions also generate atp, using chemiosis to power the addition of a phosphate group
76
carbon fixation
the intial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds
77
wavelength
the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves
78
electromagnetic specturm
this entire range of radiation
79
visible light
radiation that can be detected as various colors by the human eye
80
photons
not tangible objects,, but they act like objects in that each of them has a fixed quantity of energy. the amount of energy is inversely related to the wavelength of the light: the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of each photon of that light
81
spectrophotometer
the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelenths of light can be measured in this instrument
82
absorption spectrum
a graph plotting a pigment's light absorption versus wavelength
83
chlorophyll a
participates directly in light reactions
84
chlorophyll b
accessory pigment
85
carotenoids
more acessory pigments | hydrocarbons that are various shades of yellow and orange because they absorb violet and blue-green light
86
action spectrum
profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelenghts of radiation in driving the process
87
photosystem
composed of a reaction center complex surrounded by several light harvesting complexes
88
reaction center complex
organized association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules
89
light harvesting complex
consists of various pigment molecules bound to proteins
90
primary electron acceptior
molecule capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced
91
photosystem II
happens first discovered second
92
photosystem I
happens second discovered first
93
linear electron flow
flow of electrons through the photosystems and other molecular components built into the thylakoid membrane occurs during light reactions of photosynthesis
94
glyceraldehyde 2-phosphate
carbohydrate produced from calvin cycle half of a glucose cycle occurs three times to produce this
95
carbon fixation
the calvin cycle incorporates each CO2 molecule one at a time, by attaching it to a five carbon sugar named ribulose biphosphate the product of the reaction is a 6 carbon intermediate so unstable that it imediately splits in half, forming two molecules of 3 phosphoglycerate
96
rubisco
the enzyme that catalyzes the first stem is RUBP carboxylase, or rubisco this is the most abundant protein in chloroplasts and is also thought to be the most abundant protein on earth
97
reduction (calvin cycle)
electrons from NADPJ reduce a tjing one molecule exits the cycle to be used by the plant cell, but the other 5 molecules must be recycled to regenerate the 3molecules of RuBP
98
regeneration of the co2 acceptor
complex series of reactions | 5 molecules of G3P are rearranged into three molecules of RuBP
99
C3 plants
plants in which initial fixation of Carbon occurs via rubisco, the calvin cycle enzyme adds CO2 to ribulose biphosphate first organic produt of carbon fixation is a three carbon compound
100
photorespiration
stomata close on hot dry days C3 plants produce less sugar rubisco binds O2 in place of CO2 as CO2 becomes scarce and O2 builds up, rubisco adds O2 to the calvin cycle instead of CO2. The process splits, forming a two carbon compound that leaves the chloroplast and is broken down in the cell, releasing CO2
101
C4 plants
modified pathway for sugar synthesis that first fixes CO2 into a four carbon compound spatial separation fo steps (carbon fixation and the calvin cycle occur in different types of cells)
102
crassulacean acid metabolism
during the night stomata open and plants take in CO2 and incorporate it into a variety of organic acids does calvin cycle in day temporal change
103
CAM plants
mesophyll cells of these plants store the organic acids they make during the night in their vacuoles until morning

AP Bio (12 decks)

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