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exam 3 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

metabolism

A

emergent property of life tat arises from orderly interactions between molecules
made of chemical reactions arranged as intersection metabolic pathways

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2
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a product
each step of the pathway is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

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3
Q

catabolic pathways

A

release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones
cellular respiration

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4
Q

anabolic pathways

A

consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones
photosynthesis

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5
Q

bioenergetics

A

study of how energy flows through living organisms

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6
Q

energy

A

capacity to cause change

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7
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy associated with the relative motion of objects

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8
Q

thermal energy

A

kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules
heat

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9
Q

heat

A

transfer from one object to another with thermal energy

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10
Q

potential energy

A

energy that is not kinetic

it is energy that matter posesses because of location or structure

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11
Q

chemical energy

A

potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

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12
Q

thermodynamics

A

the studyi of the energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter

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13
Q

isolated system

A

unable to exchange either energy or matter with suroundings

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14
Q

open system

A

energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings

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15
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

also known as principle of conservation of energy

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16
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe

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17
Q

entropy

A

measure of disorder, randomness

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18
Q

spontaneous process

A

a process that can occur without an input of energy

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19
Q

free energy

A

portion of a system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell

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20
Q

exergonic reaction

A

proceeds with a net release of free energy

change in G is negative because the chemical mixture loses free energy

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21
Q

endergonic reaction

A

one that absorbs free energy from its surroundings

because this kind of reaction essentially stores free energy in molecules the change in G is positive

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22
Q

equillibrium

A

term used to describe a state of maximum stability

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23
Q

energy coupling

A

the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

atp is responsible for mediating most energy coupling in cells

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24
Q

adenosine triphosphate

A

contains a sugar ribose, with the nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of 3 phosphate groups bonded to it
in addition to its role in energy coupling, ATP is also one of the nucleoside triphosphates used to make RNA

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25
Q

phosphorylated intermediate

A

the recipient with the phosphate group covalently bonded to the ATP

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26
Q

enzyme

A

macromolecule that acts like a catalyst

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27
Q

catalyst

A

chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

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28
Q

activation energy

A

the intial investment of energy for starting a reaction

abbreviated Ea

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29
Q

substrate

A

the reactant an enzyme acts on is referred to as this

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30
Q

enzyme-substrate complex

A

when the enzyme binds to the substrate

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31
Q

induced fit

A

the shape change of an enzyme to make an active site fit even more snugly around the substrate

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32
Q

cofators

A

nonprotein helpers for catalytic activity
may be bound tightly to the enzyme as permanent residents, or they may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate

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33
Q

coenzyme

A

cofactors that are organic

vitamins are coenzymes

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34
Q

competitive inhibitors

A

reduce productivity of an enzyme by blocking substrates from entering active sites

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35
Q

noncompetitive inhibitors

A

do not directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the active site
instead they impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme

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36
Q

allosteric regulation

A

any case in which a protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a seperate site

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37
Q

regulatory molecules

A

molecules that naturally regulate enzyme activity in a cell behave like reversible noncompetitive inhibitors

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38
Q

activator vs inhibitor

A

the binding of an activator to a regulatory site stabilizes the shape that has functional active sites, whereas the binding of an inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme

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39
Q

cooperativity

A

substrate molecule binding to one active site in a multi subunit enzyme triggers a shape change in all the subunits, thereby increasing catalytic activity and other active sites.
Amplifies the response of enzymes to subtrates

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40
Q

feedback inhibition

A

a metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway

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41
Q

fermentation

A

the partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen

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42
Q

aerobic respiration

A

oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel

43
Q

cellular respiration

A

includes both aerobic and anaerobic processes organic compounds + oxygen = carbon dioxide +water+energy

44
Q

redox reactions

A

electron transfers in chemical reactions

45
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons from one substance

46
Q

reduction

A

addition of electrons to another substance

47
Q

reducing agent

A

electron donor

48
Q

oxidizing agent

A

electron acceptor

49
Q

NAD+

A

coenzyme and electron carrier

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

50
Q

electron transport chain

A

consists of a number of molecules, mostly proteins, built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the mplasa membrane of aerobically respiring prokaryotes

51
Q

glycolysis

A

occurs in the cytosol

begins the degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate

52
Q

citric acid cycle

A

breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide is completed

53
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

mode of atp synthase that is powered by the redox reactions of the electron transport chain

54
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP rather than adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation

55
Q

acetyl CoA

A

once inside the mitochondrion, pyruvate undergoes a series of enzymatic reactions that remove CO2 and oxidizes the remaining fragment, forming NADH from NAD+. The product is highly reactive compound called acetyl Coenzyme A

56
Q

prosthetic groups

A

nonprotein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes

57
Q

cytochromes

A

most of the electron carriers between ubiquinone and oxygen are proteins called cytochromes

58
Q

ATP synthase

A

enzyme that makes ATP froADP and inorganic phosphate

works like an ion pump running in reverse

59
Q

chemiosmosis

A

the process where energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP

60
Q

proton-motive force

A

H+ gradient that results from the ETC

emphasizing the capacity of the gradient to perform work

61
Q

FADH2

A

acts as NADH in liver cells only

62
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps
the first step releases carbon dioxide from the pyruvate, which is converted to the two carbon compound acetaldehyde. In the second step, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol. This regenerates the supply of NAD+ needed for the continuation of glycolysis.

63
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2.

64
Q

obligate anaerobes

A

some organisms that carry out only fermentation or other anaerobic respiration
they cant survive in the presence of oxygen

65
Q

facultative anaerobes

A

other organisms that can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration

66
Q

photosynthesis

A

the chloroplasts of plants capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy that is stored in sugar and other organic molecules

67
Q

autotrophs

A

self feeders
they sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living beings
producers of the biosphere

68
Q

heterotrophs

A

unable to make their own food
they live on compounds produced by other organisms
consumers

69
Q

mesophyll

A

the tissue in the interior of the leaf

70
Q

stomata

A

pores that gas enters into and exits from in the leaf

71
Q

stroma

A

dense fluid in chloroplast

72
Q

thylakoids

A

third membrane system made of sacs called thylakoids

suspended within the stroma

73
Q

chlorophyll

A

green pigment that gives leaves their color

resides in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast

74
Q

light reactions

A

steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy
in thylakoids

75
Q

photophosphorylation

A

the light reactions also generate atp, using chemiosis to power the addition of a phosphate group

76
Q

carbon fixation

A

the intial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds

77
Q

wavelength

A

the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves

78
Q

electromagnetic specturm

A

this entire range of radiation

79
Q

visible light

A

radiation that can be detected as various colors by the human eye

80
Q

photons

A

not tangible objects,, but they act like objects in that each of them has a fixed quantity of energy. the amount of energy is inversely related to the wavelength of the light: the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of each photon of that light

81
Q

spectrophotometer

A

the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelenths of light can be measured in this instrument

82
Q

absorption spectrum

A

a graph plotting a pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength

83
Q

chlorophyll a

A

participates directly in light reactions

84
Q

chlorophyll b

A

accessory pigment

85
Q

carotenoids

A

more acessory pigments

hydrocarbons that are various shades of yellow and orange because they absorb violet and blue-green light

86
Q

action spectrum

A

profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelenghts of radiation in driving the process

87
Q

photosystem

A

composed of a reaction center complex surrounded by several light harvesting complexes

88
Q

reaction center complex

A

organized association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules

89
Q

light harvesting complex

A

consists of various pigment molecules bound to proteins

90
Q

primary electron acceptior

A

molecule capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced

91
Q

photosystem II

A

happens first discovered second

92
Q

photosystem I

A

happens second discovered first

93
Q

linear electron flow

A

flow of electrons through the photosystems and other molecular components built into the thylakoid membrane
occurs during light reactions of photosynthesis

94
Q

glyceraldehyde 2-phosphate

A

carbohydrate produced from calvin cycle
half of a glucose
cycle occurs three times to produce this

95
Q

carbon fixation

A

the calvin cycle incorporates each CO2 molecule one at a time, by attaching it to a five carbon sugar named ribulose biphosphate
the product of the reaction is a 6 carbon intermediate so unstable that it imediately splits in half, forming two molecules of 3 phosphoglycerate

96
Q

rubisco

A

the enzyme that catalyzes the first stem is RUBP carboxylase, or rubisco
this is the most abundant protein in chloroplasts and is also thought to be the most abundant protein on earth

97
Q

reduction (calvin cycle)

A

electrons from NADPJ reduce a tjing
one molecule exits the cycle to be used by the plant cell, but the other 5 molecules must be recycled to regenerate the 3molecules of RuBP

98
Q

regeneration of the co2 acceptor

A

complex series of reactions

5 molecules of G3P are rearranged into three molecules of RuBP

99
Q

C3 plants

A

plants in which initial fixation of Carbon occurs via rubisco, the calvin cycle enzyme adds CO2 to ribulose biphosphate
first organic produt of carbon fixation is a three carbon compound

100
Q

photorespiration

A

stomata close on hot dry days
C3 plants produce less sugar
rubisco binds O2 in place of CO2
as CO2 becomes scarce and O2 builds up, rubisco adds O2 to the calvin cycle instead of CO2. The process splits, forming a two carbon compound that leaves the chloroplast and is broken down in the cell, releasing CO2

101
Q

C4 plants

A

modified pathway for sugar synthesis that first fixes CO2 into a four carbon compound
spatial separation fo steps
(carbon fixation and the calvin cycle occur in different types of cells)

102
Q

crassulacean acid metabolism

A

during the night stomata open and plants take in CO2 and incorporate it into a variety of organic acids
does calvin cycle in day
temporal change

103
Q

CAM plants

A

mesophyll cells of these plants store the organic acids they make during the night in their vacuoles until morning

AP Bio (12 decks)

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