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exam 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

light microscope

A

visible light is passed through the specimen and then through the glass lenses. the lenses refract/bend the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye or camera

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2
Q

magnification

A

the ratio of an object’s image size to its real size

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3
Q

resolution

A

is a measure of the clarity of the image

it is the minimum distance two points can be separated and stil be distinguished as separate points

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4
Q

contrast

A

the difference in brightness between the light and dark areas of an image

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5
Q

organelles

A

the membrane enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells

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6
Q

electron microscope

A

focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface

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7
Q

cytoplasm

A

to the region between the nucleus and plasma membrane, liquid

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8
Q

plasma membrane

A

functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell

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9
Q

microvilli

A

thin projections from the cell’s surface that increase surface area without an appreciable increase in volume

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10
Q

what increases faster

surface area or volume

A

volume

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11
Q

nucleus

A

contains most f the genes in the eukaryotic cell

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12
Q

nuclear envelope

A

encloses the nucleus separating its contents from the cytoplasm
double membrane

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13
Q

nuclear lamina

A

netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envlopoe

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14
Q

chromatin

A

the complex of dna and proteins making up chromosomes inside the nucleus

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15
Q

nucleolus

A

prominent structure which appears through the electron microscope as a mass of densley stained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin
ribsonomal rna is synthesized from instructions in the dna
proteins imported from the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes

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16
Q

ribosomes

A

complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein, are the cellular components that carry out protein synthesis

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17
Q

free ribosomes

A

suspended in cytoplasm

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18
Q

bound ribosomes

A

attached to the outside of the ER or nuclear envelope

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19
Q

endomembrane system

A

includes: nuclear envelope, ER, golgi, lysosomes, and various kinds of vesicles and vacuoles, and the plasma membrane
this system carries out a variety of tasks in the cell, including synthesis of proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism

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20
Q

vesicles

A

membrane sacs that transport things in the cell and out

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21
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

extensive network of membranes that it accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotes
the er consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. the er membrane separates the internal compartment of the er, called the er lumen (cavity) or cisternal space, from the cytosol

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22
Q

smooth er

A

no ribosomes

synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxyfication of drugs and poisons, storage of calcium ions

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23
Q

rough er

A

has ribosomes
secretes proteins produced by bound ribosomes (most are glycoproteins)
also produces membrane

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24
Q

transport vesicles

A

vesicles in transit form one part of the cell to another

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25
Q

golgi apparatus

A

products of the ER are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations
consists of flattened membranous sacs-cisternae-looking like a stack of pita bread

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26
Q

cis and trans faces of golgi

A

cis face near the er where stuff comes in

trans face gives rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sides

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27
Q

lysosome

A

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules

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28
Q

phagocytosis

A

engulfing smaller organisms or food particles

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29
Q

autophagy

A

lysosomes use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organic material

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30
Q

vacuoles

A

large vesicles derived from the er and golgi
integral part of cell’s endomembrane system
vacuolar membrane is selective in transporting solutes and the solution inside a vacuole differs in composition from the cytosol

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31
Q

food vacuoles

A

formed by phagocytosis

store food and break down food and things

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32
Q

contractile vacuoles

A

pump excess water out of the cell, thereby maintaining a suitable concentraton of ions and molecules inside the cell

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33
Q

central vacuole

A

plant cells
develops by the coalescence of smaller vacuoles
cell sap is the plant cell’s main repository of inoranic ions, including potassium and chloride
major role in the growth of plant cells

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34
Q

endosymbiont theory

A

that an early ancestor off eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non photosythetic prokaryotic cell. eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming an edosymbiont. over the course of evolution this merged into a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondria and later the same happened with a chloroplast, creating plant cell

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35
Q

mitochondria

A

sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate atp by extracting energy from sugars, fats and other fuels

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36
Q

cristae

A

infoldings of the inner membrane

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37
Q

intermembrane space (mitochondria)

A

narrow region between hthe inner and outer membranes in mitochondria

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38
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

enclosed by the inner membrane
contains many different enzymes as well as the mitochondrial dna and ribosomes
enzymes in the matrix catalyze some of the steps of cellular respiration

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39
Q

chloroplasts

A

found in plants and algae, sites of photosynthesis. these organelles convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight nd using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from co2 and water

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40
Q

chlorophyll

A

green pigment in chloroplasts

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41
Q

thylakoids

A

flattened interconnected sacs

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42
Q

granum

A

each stack of thylakoids

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43
Q

stroma

A

fluid outside the thylakoids

containes chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as many enzymes

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44
Q

plastids

A

specialized family of closely related plant organelles

contains chloroplast

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45
Q

peroxisome

A

specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane
contain enzymes that remove H2 atoms from certain molecules and transfer them to oxygen (o2) producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring h2 from the poisons to o2
also contains an enzyme tha converts h2o2 to water

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46
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

major role in organizing the structures and activities of cell

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47
Q

motor proteins

A

interacts with the cytoskeleton, work together with plasma membrane molecules to allow whole cells to move along fibers outside the cell
cell motility

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48
Q

microtubules

A

hollow rods constructed from a globular protein called tubulin
a-tubulin and B-tubulin.
microtubules grow in length by adding tubulin dimers
shape and support cell and serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins can move

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49
Q

centrosomes

A

region that is located near the nucleus and is considered a microtubule organizing center
these microtubules function as comporession resisting girders of the cytoskeleton

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50
Q

centrioles

A

inside the centrosome is a pair of these
each are composed of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring
before an animal cell divides, the centrioles replicate

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51
Q

flagella

A

limited to just one or a few per cell and are longer than cilia
has an undulating motion like the tail of a fish

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52
Q

cillia

A

occur in large numbers on the cell surface
work like oars, alternating power and recovery strokes
a single cillium may also act as a signal recieving atenna

53
Q

basal body

A

9+0 pattern
microtubule assembly of a cillium or flagellum is anchored in the cell by one of these which is structurally like a centriole

54
Q

dyneins

A

large motor proteins are attached along each outer microtubule doublet

55
Q

microfilaments

A

thin solid rods
also called actin filaments because they are built from molecules of actin, a globular protien
twisted double chain of actin subunits

56
Q

myosin

A

thousands of actin filaments and thicker filaments of a motor protein that interact to cause contraction of muscle cells

57
Q

intermediate filaments

A

named for their diameter, which is larger than the diameter of microfilaments but smaller than that of microtubules
each type is constructed from a particular molecular subumit belonging to a family of proteins whose members include the keratins in hair and nails

58
Q

cell wall

A

extracellular structure of plant cells that distinguishes them from animal cells
protects the plant cell
maintains its shape
prevents excessive uptake of water

59
Q

primary cell wall

A

relatively thin and flexible wall

60
Q

middle lamella

A

between primary walls of adjacent cells, a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectins

61
Q

secondary cell wall

A

not required
between plasma membrane and primary wall
strong and durable matrix that affords the cell protection and support

62
Q

extracellular matrix

ecm

A

everything outside the cell and between cells

most ingredients are glycoproteins and other carb-containing molecules secreted by the cells

63
Q

collagen

A

most abundant glycoprotein in the ecm of animal cells
forms strong fibers outside the cells
40% of protein in human body

64
Q

proteoglycans

A

consists of a small protein with many carb chains covalently attached
proteoglycan complex consists of hundreds of proteoglycan molecules attached non-covalently to a single long polysaccharide molecule

65
Q

fibronectin

A

attached cell to ecm

bind to cell receptor proteins

66
Q

integrins

A

proteins bult into cell membrane

67
Q

pasmodesmata

A

membrane lined channels filled with cytosol

unify most of a plant into one living continuum

68
Q

tight junctions

A

plasma membranes very tightly pressed against each other, bound together by specific proteins
in skin cells make us water tight

69
Q

desmosomes

A

fasten cells together into strong sheets

muscle cells

70
Q

gap junctions

A

similar in their function to plasmodesmata in plants

necessary for communication between cells in many types of tissues

71
Q

selective permeability

A

it allows some substances to cross it more easily than others (plama membrane)

72
Q

amphipathic molecule

A

it has both a hydrophobic and hydrohilic region

ex) phospholipid

73
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids

74
Q

unsaturated membrane fluidity

A

unsaturated hydrocarbon tails (kinked) prevent packing, enhancing membrane fluidity at all temperatures

75
Q

saturated membrane fluidity

A

saturated hydrocarbon tails pack together, lowering membrane fluidity making it easier to freeze

76
Q

cholesterol in membrane and fluidity

A

reduces membrane fluidity at moderate temperatures by reducing phospholipid movement
but at low temperatures it hinders solidification by disrupting the regular packing of phospholipids

77
Q

integral proteins

A

penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer
the majority are transmembrane proteins, which span the membrane; other integral proteins extend only partway into hydrophobic interior

78
Q

peripheral proteins

A

not embedded in lipid bilayer at all
appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane
often exposed parts of integral proteins

79
Q

glycolipids

A

carbs bound to the plasma membrane directly

80
Q

glycoproteins

A

carbs bound to the integrins or peripheral proteins

81
Q

transport proteins

A

hydrophillic substances avoid contact with the lipid bilayer with transport proteins

82
Q

channel proteins

A

hydrophillic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel through membrane
this is protein

83
Q

aquaporins

A

channel proteins for water

84
Q

carrier proteins

A

transport proteins that hold onto their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane

85
Q

diffusion

A

the movement of particles of any substance so that they tend to spread out in the available space
each molecule moves randomly but ends up reaching equilibrium

86
Q

concentration gradient

A

region along which the density of a substance increases or decreases

87
Q

passive transport

A

diffusion is passive because the cell does not have to expend energy to make it happen

88
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane

89
Q

tonocity

A

the ability of a surrounging solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
the tonocity of a solution depends in part on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the membrane relative to that inside the cell

90
Q

isotonic

A

same environment

no net movement of water across plasma membrane

91
Q

hypertonic

A

more non penetrating solutes

cell will lose water, shrivel and probably die in a hypertonic solution

92
Q

hypotonic

A

less solute and more water the cell will swell and lyse

93
Q

osmoregulation

A

controlling solute concentrations and water balance

94
Q

turgid

A

very firm

healthy for plant cells

95
Q

flaccid

A

isotonic

limp

96
Q

plasmolysis

A

plant wilt and can lead to plant death

hypertonic

97
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

many polar molecules and ions impeded by the lipid bilayer of the membrane diffuse passively with the help of transport proteins that span the membrane
no energy used

98
Q

ion channels

A

chanells that transport ions

99
Q

gated channels

A

open or close in response to a stimulus

most ion channels

100
Q

active transport

A

cell uses energy to transport against electrochemical gradient

101
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

active transport
exchanges Na+ for K+ across the plasma membrane for animal cells
page 5.14

102
Q

membrane potential

A

voltage across memebrane

103
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

combination of forces acting on an ion

ie. voltage and concentration

104
Q

electrogenic pump

A

a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane

105
Q

proton pump

A

actively transports protons outside cell to encourage other molcules in

106
Q

cotransport

A

a single atp powered pump that transports a specific solution can inderectly drive the active transport of several other solutes

107
Q

exocytosis

A

the cell secretes certain biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane

108
Q

endocyosis

A

cell takes in molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane

109
Q

phagocytosis

A

cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membranous sac called a food vacuole

110
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell continually gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles
nonspecific for substances it transports

111
Q

receptor mediated endocytosis

A

specialized type of pinocytosis that enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substance, even though those substance may not be ver concentrated in the extracellular fluid

112
Q

local regulators

A

travel only short distances

113
Q

paracrine signaling

A

a secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator (a growth factor, for example) into the extracellular fluid

114
Q

synaptic signaling

A

a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules, into a synapse, stimulating the target cell
can be local and long distance depending on length of synapse

115
Q

hormones for long distance signalling

A

specialized cells release hormone molecules, which travel via the circulatory system to other parts of the body, where they reach target cells that can recognize and respond to the hormones

116
Q

reception

A

target cell’s detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside cell

117
Q

transduction

A

step or series of steps that converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response
usually requires a sequence of changes in a series of different molecules- a signal transduction pathway

118
Q

response

A

transduced signal triggers cellular response

may be almost any imaginable cellular activity

119
Q

ligand

A

=signalling molecule

=first messenger

120
Q

g-protein coupled receptor

A

cell surface transmembrane receptor that works with the help of a g protein

121
Q

g protein

A

a protein that binds the energy rich molecule GTP, similar to ATP but with guanine

122
Q

ligand-gated ion channel

A

membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a gate for ions when the receptor assumes a certain shape triggered by a ligand

123
Q

intracellular receptors

A

these ligands have to be hydrophobic to pass through the plasma membrane to reach receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus

124
Q

transcription fators

A

control which genes are transcribed into mRNA in a particular cell at a particular time

125
Q

protein kinase

A

enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein

such enzymes are widely involved in signalling pathways in animals, plants and fungi

126
Q

protein phosphatases

A

(PP)

enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation

127
Q

second messengers

A

small non protein water soluble molecules or ions
can readily spread throughout the cell by dffusion
-cyclic AMP
-Ca2+

128
Q

cyclic AMP

A

cyclic adenosine monophosphate

each molecule of adenylyl cyclase can catalyze the synthesis of many molecules of cAMP

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