Exam 2: Chapter 11 Flashcards
What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
benign: Grow slowly, well-defined capsule, not invasive, well-differentiated, low miotic index, do not metastasize
Malignant: grow rapidly, not encapsulated, invasive, poorly differentiated, high mitotic index, can spread distantly
Lipoma, Leiomyoa, and meningioma are all examples of _________ tumors
a. benign
b. malignant
a. benign
carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, lymphoma, and leukemia are all examples of _______ tumors
a. benign
b. malignant
b. malignant
what does the stage of cancer tell you?
the size of the tumor and how far it has spread from where it originated
what are the different stages of cancer?
Stage I: No metastasis
Stage II: Local invasion
Stage III: Spread to regional structures
Stage IV: Distant metastasis
what does the grade of cancer tell you?
What the cancer cells look like
list the hallmarks of cancer
- sustained proliferative signaling
- allows cells to divide and replicate uncontrollably
- evading growth suppressors
- mutation (inactivation) of tumor-suppressor genes
- Tumor protein p53 (TP53) - guardian of the genome (supports apoptosis)
*loss of its’ function leads to half of all known cancers/malignancies
- genomic instability
- increased tendency for gnomic mutations during life cycle of the cell (increased risk for cancer)
- telomeres and immortality
- telomeres are protective caps on each chromosome and are held in place by telomerase
- body cells are not immortal and can only divide a limited number of times
- Telomeres ↓ in size with each cell division
- Cancer cells can activate telomerase (unlimited division and proliferation)
- angiogenesis
- growth of new vessels to support tumors
-Responsible for the progression and growth of cancer/tumors - Advanced cancers can secrete angiogenic growth factors
- growth of new vessels to support tumors
- programming energy metabolism
-Warburg effect: use of glycolysis under normal oxygen conditions (aerobic glycolysis)
*allows products of glycolysis to be used for rapid cell growth
*activated by oncogenes and mutant tumor suppressors - resisting apoptotic cell death
- defects in pathways provide resistance to apoptotic cell death
how is the immune system and various pathogens related to cancer?
the normal immune system protects against cancer
immunosuppression fosters cancer – it loses its ability to fight cancer
define metastasis
spread of cancer from a primary site of origin to a distant site
a local spread of cancer is known as
direct invasion of contiguous organs
metastases to distant organs travel through the
lymphatics and blood (vascular and lymphatic pathways)
selectivity of different cancers at different sites
breast cancer –> bones
lymphomas –> spleen
colorectal –> liver
- it also usually occurs late
list the clinical manifestations of cancer
-pain
-fatigue
-syndrome of cachexia (severe form of malnutrition
-anemia
- chronic bleeding can lead to iron deficiency,
- severe malnutrition
- leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
- chemo drugs bad for bone marrow
- infection
- risk increases when neutrophil & lymphocytes fall
-gastrointestinal manifestations (diarrhea, nausea, oral ulcers from decreased cell turnover from chemo and radiation)
- hair and skin manifestations
- alopecia, skin breakdown and dryness
what are tumor cell markers?
tumor cell markers (biological markers) are substances produced by cancer cells that are found in tumor cells, in the blood, CSF or urine
tumor marker cells are used to…
-screen and identify individuals at high risk for cancer
-diagnose specific types of tumors
-observe clinical course of cancer
-concerns: false positives and negatives
Which of the following statements is TRUE?
A. All neoplasms are cancerous.
B. Benign growths are cancerous.
C. Malignant tumors have slow growth.
D. Cancer refers to a malignant tumor.
D. Cancer refers to a malignant tumor
An abnormal mass of tissue that has little response to normal growth control mechanisms is described as:
A. Metaplastic
B. Hyperplastic
C. Hypertrophic
D. Neoplastic
D. Neoplastic
What does TNM stand for?
Tumor
Nodes
Metastases
In general, cancers that are in “Stage 1” have metastasized.
A. True
B.False
B. False
A patient has been diagnosed with prostate cancer that has metastasized to the bone. The stage of this cancer is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
D. 4
Which of the following is TRUE regarding environmental risk factors and the development of cancer?
A. Chronic alcoholism is linked to lung cancer.
B. Human papillomavirus can cause liver cancer.
C. Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is linked to breast cancer.
D. Physical activity reduces the risk of breast cancer and colon cancer.
D. physical activity reduces the risk of breast cancer and colon cancer
Controlling bacterial infection from Helicobacter pylori is responsible for a decrease in which type of cancer?
A. Lung
B. Stomach
C. Leukemia
D. Colorectal
B. Stomach
Which of the following is TRUE regarding childhood cancer (aged 0-14 years)?
A. Most cancers are carcinomas.
B. Tumors of the nervous system are rare.
C. The most common type of cancer is leukemia.
D. The types of malignancies are similar to adult malignancies.
C. The most common type of cancer is leukemia
Children with Down syndrome have an increased susceptibility to which type of cancer?
A. Wilms
B. Osteosarcoma
C. Acute leukemia
D. Retinoblastoma
C. acute leukemia
Which of the following is not a characteristic of benign tumors?
A. small
B. slow growing
C. Poorly differentiated
D. nonmetastatic
C. Poorly differentiated
Which of the following is not a characteristic of malignant tumors?
A. poorly demarcated
B. large
C. rapidly growing
D. noninvasive
D. noninvasive
One hallmark of cancer is uncontrolled cellular proliferation. This is known as:
A. Sustained proliferative signaling
B. Inducing angiogenesis
C. Evading growth suppressors
D. Resisting cell death
A. Sustained proliferative signaling
__________ normally regulate the cell cycle, inhibit proliferation resulting from growth signals, stop cell division when cells are damaged, and prevent mutations.
A. oncogenes
B. Tumor-suppressor genes
C. proto-oncogenes
D. caretaker genes
B. Tumor-suppressor genes
__________, a hallmark of cancer, refers to an increased tendency of alterations in the genome during the life cycle of cells.
A. Reprogramming energy metabolism
B. Genomic instability
C. Resistance to destruction
D. Sustained proliferative signaling
B. Genomic instability
__________ refers to the spread of cancer cells from the site of the original tumor to distant tissues and organs through the body.
A. Enabling mortality
B. Metastasis
C. Resistance to destruction
D. Inflammation
B. Metastasis
Symptom complexes, such as cushing syndrome, hypoglycemia, and SIADH, that are triggered by a cancer but are not caused by direct local effects of the tumor mass are known as _____________.
A. lymphadema
B. cachexia
C. anemia
D. paraneoplastic syndromes
D. paraneoplastic syndromes
The World Health Organization’s labeling of cancer progression is:
A. TNM
B. Staging
A. TNM
__________ is the most frequently reported symptom of cancer and cancer treatment.
A. Fatigue
B. Alopecia
C. Anemia
D. Cachexia
A. Fatigue
Pain is generally associated with _______ stage of cancer.
A. late
B. early
A. late
explain the TNM label of cancer
T: Tumor spread
T0= breast free of tumor
T1= lesion <2 cm
T2= lesion 2-5 cm
T3= skin and/or chest wall involved by invasion
N: Node involvement
N0= no axillary nodes involved
N1= mobile nodes involved
N2= fixed nodes involved
M: Presence of distant metastasis
M0= no metastases
M1= demonstrate metastases
M2= suspected metastases
Sustained proliferative: define proto-oncogenes
normal genes that direct protein synthesis and cellular growth
Sustained proliferative: define oncogenes
mutant genes; can transform a cell into a tumor cell
Sustained proliferative: define tumor suppressor genes/antioncogenes
normal genes that slow down cell division or tell cells to die at the right time (regulates cell growth); protects us from certain types of cancer
what are immunosuppression fosters cancer?
ex: non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma
