Exam #1 Chapters 1, 3, and 4 Flashcards
The erect position of the body with the face forward, arms at the side, palms facing forward, used in reference in describing the relationship of body parts
anatomical position
Two branches of science that provide the foundation for understanding the bodys parts and functions
anatomy and physiology
The science of body structures and the relationships among them
anatomy
The science of body functions, how body parts work
physiology
6 levels of structural organization are:
chemical cellular tissue organ systems organismal
Basic level that can be composed of atoms and molecules
chemical level
Smallest unit of matter that participate in chemical reactions
atom
Two or more atoms joined together
molecules
Molecules combine together to form ______, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals
cells, cellular level
Groups of cells and materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular functions
four types are :
epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
tissues, tissue level
Tissues that covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities and forms glands
epithelial
Tissues that connects, supports , and protects body organs while distributing blood levels to other tissues
connective
Tissues that contracts to make body parts move and generate heat
muscular
Tissues that carry information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses
nervous
The level were different types of tissues join together
organ level
Structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues, they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes
Ex: heart, liver, brain, lungs, stomach
organs
Level that consists of related organs with a common function
Ex: digestive
system level
Head
cephalic
Skull
cranial
Face
facial
Neck
cervical
Armpit
axillary
Arm
brachial
Front of elbow
antecubital
Forearm
antebrachial
Wrist
carpal
Palm
palmer or volar
Fingers
digital or phalangeal
Thigh
femoral
Anterior surface of the knee
patellar
Leg
crural
Foot
pedal
Ankle
tarsal
Toes
digital or phalangeal
Forehead
frontal
Temple
temporal
Eye
orbital or ocular
Ear
otic
Cheek
buccal
Nose
nasal
Mouth
oral
Chin
mental
Breastbone
sternal
Chest
thoracic
Breast
mammary
Abdomen
abdominal
Navel
umbilical
Hip
coxal
Groin
inguinal
Pelvic
pelvis
Thumb
pollex
Hand
manual
Pubis
pubic
Top of foot
dorsum
Great toe
hallux
Base of skull
occipital
Shoulder blade
scapular
Spinal column
vertebral
Back
dorsal
Back of elbow
olecranal or cubital
Between hips
sacral
Buttock
gluteal
Region of the anus and external genitals
perineal
Hollow behind knee
popliteal
Calf
sural
Sole
plantar
Loin
lumbar
Back of hand
dorsum
Heel
calcaneal
Words that describe the position of one body part relative to another
directional terms
Towrards the head, or upper part
superior
Away from the head, or the lower part
inferior
Nearer to or at the front
anterior
Nearer to or the back
posterior
Nearer to the midline, an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left halves
medial
Farther from the midline
lateral
Between to structures
intermediate
On the same side of the body as another structure
ipsilateral
On the opposite side of the body from another structure
contralateral
Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the origination of a structure
proximal
Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the origination of a structure
distal
Toward or on the surface of the body
superficial
Away from the surface of the body
deep
Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts
planes
A vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides
sagittal plane
When a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right an left sides
parasagittal plane
Divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions
frontal or coronal plane
Divides the body or an organ into superior and inferior portions
transverse portions or cross-sectional, or horizontal plane
By contrast, passes through the body or an organ at a oblique angle other than 90 degree
oblique plane
A cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes
section
11 principle body systems:
integumentary skeletal muscular nervous endocrine cardiovascular lymphatic respitory digestive urinary reproductive
Skin and associated structures such as hair, fingernails, and tonsils, sweat glands, and oil glands
integumentary system
Functions: protects the body, helps regulate body temperature, eliminates some waste, helps make Vitamin D, detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth, and cold, stores fat and provides insulation
integumentary system
Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages
skeletal system
Functions: supports and protects body, provides surface for muscle attachments, aids body movements, houses cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids
skeletal system
Specifically skeletal muscle tissue, muscle usually attached to bone (smooth, cardiac tissue)
muscular system
Functions: participates in body movements, such as walking, maintains posture, produces heat
muscular system
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs, such as eyes and ears
nervous system
Functions: generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities, detects changes in body’s internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions
nervous system
Hormone producing glands, pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, and testes
endocrine system
Functions: regulates body activities by releasing hormones, chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine glands or tissue to target organ
endocrine system
Blood, heart, and blood vessels
cardiovascular system
Functions: heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and waste away from cells and helps regulate acid-base balance, temp, and water content of body fluids, blood components help defend against disease and repair damaged blood vessels
cardiovascular system
Lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils, cells that carry out immune responses, B cells, T cells, and others
lymphatic system
Functions: returns proteins and fluid to body, carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease causing microbes
lymphatic system
Lungs and air passages such as the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs
respiratory system
Function: transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid base balance of body fluids, air flowing out the lungs through vocal cords, produces sound
respiratory system
Organs of gastrointestinal tract, a long tube that includes the the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and anus, also includes accessory organs that assist in digestive process, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
digestive system
Functions: achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, adsorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes
digestive system
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
urinary system
Functions: produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates waste and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood, helps maintain the acid base balance of body fluids, maintains bodys mineral balance, helps regulate production of red blood cells
urinary system
Gonads, testes in males, ovaries in females, and associated organs, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females, epididymis, ductus or deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis in males
reproductive system
Functions: gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism, gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes, associated organs transport and store gametes, mammary glands produce milk
reproductive system
Six most important life processes the occur in the body:
metabolism responsiveness movement growth differentiation reproduction
The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
metabolism
One phase of metabolism is ______, the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components
catabolism
A phase of metabolism, the building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components
anabolism
The body’s ability to detect and respond to changes
Ex: fever
responsiveness
Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells
movement
An increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells or both
growth
The development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state, such stem cells
differentiation
Cells which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation
stem cells
Formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual
reproduction
Also known as necropsy, is a post-mortem examination of the body and dissection of its internal organs to confirm or determine the cause of death
autopsy
The maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal environment, it occurs because of the ceaseless inter-play of the body’s many regulatory systems
homeostasis
An important aspect of ________ is maintaining the volume and composition of ____, dilute watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them
homeostasis, body fluids
The fluid within cells
intracellular fluid
The fluid outside body cells
extracellular fluid (EFC)
The EFC that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
interstitial fluid
EFC within blood vessels
blood plasma
EFC within lymphatic vessels
lymph
EFC in and around the brain and spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid
EFC in joints
synovial fluid
EFC of the eyes
aqueous humor and vitreous body
Because EFC surrounds the cells of the body, it serves as the body’s ___
internal environment
The space that surrounds the entire body
external environment
The linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems are continuous with the ____
external environment
From the ___, oxygen enters plasma through the respiratory system and nutrients enter plasma through the digestive system, after entering plasma, these substances are transported throughout the body by the cardiovascular system. Oxygen and nutrients eventually leave plasma and enter interstitial fluid by crossing the walls of blood capillaries, the smallest vessels of the body.
external environment
Are specialized to allow the transfer of material between plasma and interstitial fluid
capillaries
From ____, oxygen and nutrients are taken up by cells and metabolized for energy, the cells produce waste products that enter interstitial fluid and then move across blood capillary walls into plasma. The cardiovascular system transports these wastes to organs for elimination into the external environment,
CO2 is removed by respiratory system and nitrogen such as urea and ammonia by urinary system
interstitial fluid
internal environment
The ___ regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals called ___ to organs that can counteract changes from the balanced state
nervous system , nerve impulses
The ___ includes many glands that secrete messenger molecules called ___ into the blood
endocrine system, hormones
A cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, or reevaluated
feedback system or feedback loop
Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or glucose level is termed ____
controlled condition
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a ___
stimulus
3 basic components off the feedback system:
receptor
control center
effector
A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center, is a ___
This pathway is called ___, since the information flows toward the control center
receptor
afferent pathway
A ___ in the body for example the brain, sets the narrow range or set point within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when needed.
Output typically occurs as nerve impulses or hormones or other chemical signals. This pathway is called an ___, since the information flows away from the control center
control center
An ___ is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a ____ or effect that changes the controlled condition
effector, response
Nearly every ___ or ___ can behave as an effector
organ or tissue
A ___ reverses a change in a controlled condition such as blood pressure being decreased because it was increased by something
Slows and then stops as the controlled condition returns to its normal state
negative feedback
If the response reverses the stimulus, a system is operating by ___
negative feedback
A ___ tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. The control center still provides commands to an effector, but this time the effector produces physiological response that adds to or reinforce the initial change in the controlled condition, this continues until interrupted by some mechanism
Ex: normal childbirth, severe blood loss
positive feedback
The environment and you own behavior
Your genetic makeup
The air you breath, food, and even your thoughts
Are factors in ___
health balance
If the ___ is moderate, a disorder or disease may occur, if severe then death may occur
homeostatic imbalance
Any abnormality of structure or function
disorder
An illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms
disease
Affects one part or a limited region of the body
Ex: sinus infection
local disease
Affects either the entire body or several parts of it
Ex: flu
systemic disease
Subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer
Ex: headache, nausea, anxiety
symptoms
Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure
Ex: swelling, rash, fever. high blood pressure
signs
The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community
epidemiology
The science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in treatment of disease
pharmacology
The science and skill of distinguishing one disorder from another
diagnosis
The body laying facedown
prone
The body laying faceup
supine
Words that describe the position of one body part relative to another
directional terms
5 body cavities are:
cranial vertebral thoracic abdominalpelvic pelvic
Spaces that enclose internal organs
body cavities
The cranial bones form a hollow space of the head called the ___
cranial cavity
The bones of the vertebral column form the ___ which contains the spinal cord
vertebral canal
The ___ cavity and ____ are continuous with one another
cranial cavity and vertebral canal
Three layers of protective tissue, the ___ and a shock-absorbing fluid surround the brain and spinal cord
meninges
Cavity formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column
thoracic cavity
The pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, and mediastinum are part of the ___
thoracic cavity
A fluid filled space that surrounds the heart
pericardial cavity
Two fluid filled spaces around each lung
pleural cavity
The central portion of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region called the ___, it is between the lungs, extended from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm.
Contains all the thoracic organs such as the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels, except the lungs.
mediastinum
Dome shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominalpelvic cavity
diaphragm
Extends from the diaphragm to the groin and its encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis, its divided into two portions, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
abdominopelvic cavity
Superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
abdominal cavity
The inferior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system
pelvic cavity
Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called ___
viscera
A thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions, or connects structures
membrane
A slippery double layered membrane associated with body cavities that does not open directly to the exterior, covers viscera and also lines the walls of the thorax and abdomen
serous membrane
Thin epithelium that lines the walls of the cavities, part of the serous membrane
parietal layer
Thin epithelium that covers and adheres to the viscera within cavities
visceral layer
The serous membrane of the pleural cavities is called the ___, The ___ clings to the surface of the lungs and the ___ lines the chest wall, covering the superior surface of the diaphragm between is the pleural cavity with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid
pleura, visceral pleura, parietal pleura
The serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the ___, the ___ covers the surface of the heart, the ___ lines the chest wall. Between them is the ___, fluid with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid
pericardium, visceral pericardium, parietal pericardium, pericardial cavity
The ___ is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
peritoneum
The ___ covers the abdominal viscera, and the ___ lines the abdominal wall covering the inferior surface of the diaphragm. Between them is the ___ which contains a small of lubricating serous fluid
visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum, peritoneal cavity
Abdominal organs that are not surrounded by peritoneum, instead they are posterior to it
Ex: kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum, ascending and descending colon, portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cave
retroperitoneal
Two horizontal and two vertical lines, aligned like a tic tac toe grid, divide the cavity into nine ___
abdominopelvic regions
The superior horizontal line, the ___ passes across the lowest level of the 10th costal cartilages
subcostal line
The inferior horizontal line, the ___ , passes across the superior margins of the iliac crests of the right and left hip bone
transtubercular line
Two vertical lines left and right ___, are drawn through the midpoints of the clavicle , just medial of the nipples
midclavicular lines
The nine abdominopelvic regions are:
right hypochondriac epigastric left hypochondriac right lumbar umbilical left lumbar right inguinal hypogastric left inquinal
Divides the cavity into ___, a midsagital line (median line) and a transverse line (transumbilical line) are passed through the umbilicus (belly button)
RUQ, RLQ, LUQ, LLQ
quadrants
The ___are used for anatomical studies, and the ___ are used to locate the site of pain, tumors, or some other abnormality
nine regions, quadrants
The descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anus, left ovary and fallopian tube, and left ureter are in the ___ quadrant
LLQ
The stomach, spleen, left lobe of liver, body of pancreas, left kidney and adrenal gland, splenic flexure of colon, and parts of the transverse and descending colon are in the ___ quadrant
LUQ
The liver, gallbladder with biliary tree, duodenum, head of pancreas, right kidney and adrenal gland, and hepatic flexure of colon are in the ___ quadrant
RUQ
The cecum and appendix are in the ___ quadrant
RLQ
The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the ___ to the ___
diaphragm, groin
The normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis
Ex: wrinkles, gray hair, hair loss, loss of bone mass, menopause, decreased lung capacity
aging
Consists of the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, and has two components the cytosol and organelles
cytoplasm
- Also known as intracellular fluid
- Site of all intracellular activities except for in the in the nuclues
- 75-90% warter and dissolved substances
- Has cytockeleton
cytoplasm
- provides structure
- a network of 3 types of protein filaments, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubles
cytoskeleton
- thinner elements of cytoskeleton
- composed of myosin and actin, at edge of cell
- generates movement and support
microfilaments
-Stabilizes organelles and attach cells to one another
intermediate filaments
- largest of cytoskeletal components
- tubulin in shape
- determine cell shape and helps to move organelles
microtubules
- located near the nucleus
- consists of a pair of centrioles and the pericentriolar matrix
centrosomes
- specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes
- perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and reproduction
organelles
- microtuble HQ
- builds mt’s in non-dividing cells
- forms mitotic spindle during cell division
centrosomes
- both composed of microtubles
- ____ small ,hairlike, lining cell surface. move fluid along the cell’s curface
- ____ much larger, capable of moving the entire cell
ex: sperm cells tail
cilia, flagella
- synthesizes proteins
- attached to rough ER
- free ___, make proteins in the cytosol
- bound ___, on rough ER, make membrane protein
- can make any kind of membrane protein (cell, organelle, vesicles
ribosomes
- network of flattened membraneous sacs or tube like structures (cisternae)
- has smooth and rough
endoplasmic reticulum
- manufactures fatty acids and steroids
- initiates detox (alcohol), liver
smooth ER
-associated ribosomes, perform protein synthesis
rough ER
- transports proteins received from the rough ER
- “domestic” membrane vesicles, will become part of cell mb
- “international” secretory vesicles, contents will leave cell exocytosis
- all proteins exported from the cell are processed here
golgi complex
-golgi doesn’t simply repackage, ____ modify the contents of the vesicle
protein + glucose + glycoprotein
protein + lipid + lipoprotein
lipid + glucose + lipoprotein
lipid + glucose + glycolipid
enzymes
-dissolve + body
-spherical vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes - mini stomachs, pH of 5
-digestion of everything from cellular waste material to molecules involved in signaling and energy
metabolism
-carries out autophagy
-implements autolysis
lysosomes
- self + eater
- digesting worn-out organelles to recycle cytoplasmic contents, also cell defense
autophagy
- Self + dissolve
- destruction of the entire cell
- most intra -, some extracellular
autolysis
- peroxide + body
- microbodies contain oxidases
- oxidize amino acids and fatty acids, normal metabolism
- oxidize toxins . like alcohol
peroxisomes
-removing a Hydrogen atom is called _____
oxidization
- protein + body
- degrade proteins in the cytosol
- breaks them down into amino acids
- participate in negative feedback loops by breaking the cycle once the set point achieved
proteasomes
- the power house of the cell
- site of aerobic respiration: generate ATP in the presence of Oxygen
- has its own genome, mDNA and can transcribe its own proteins (hence ribosomes)
- also: signaling, cell cycle, growth, death
- mother gives all these too baby
mitochondrion
- contains most of the cell’s genes, located on chromosomes
- controls cellular structure
- directs cellular activities
- produces ribosomes in nucleoli
nucleus
-double membrane to separate it from the cytoplasm, dissolve before mitosis
nuclear
-analogous to the integral membrane proteins, control movement of substances into and out of nucleus
nuclear pores
-cluster of proteins, DNA, RNA-making ribosomes
nucleolus (nucleoli)
Chromosomes
-just before division, DNA replicates and condenses into ____, joined by a ____
chromatids, centromere
-highly coiled and folded DNA molecule that is combined with protein molecules
chromosome
-scientific study of cells is called ____
cell biology or cytology
3 main parts of a cell:
plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus
- forms the cells flexible outer surface, separating the cells internal from its external environment
- barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell
plasma membrane
-arrangement of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane
fluid mosiac model
____ are fluid structures b/c the lipids and many of the proteins are free to rotate and move sideways in their own half of the bilayer
membranes
The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the ____
-two back to back layers made up of 3 lipid molecules: phospholipids 75%, cholesterol 20%, and glycolipids 5%
lipid bilayer
____ are amphipathic, which means they have polar and non-polar parts
- hydro=water
- philic=loving
- phobic=fearing
- charged (polar) head
- fatty (nonpolar) tails
phospholipid molecules
-when exposed to water, the molecules will arrange themselves to hide the lipid chains
phospholipids
-something small that can tolerate the hydrophobic interior region passing through
semi-permeable
-passageways to allow regulated transport of other substances
integrated protein channels
- extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it
- most are transmembrane proteins: they span the entire bilayer and produce cytosol and ECF
integral proteins
- are not as firmly embedded in membrane
- attach to the polar heads of membrane or to integral protein in or outside the membrane
peripheral proteins
- movement of ions or molecules in water in response to a concentration gradient
- substances move from an area of high to low concentration (downhill)
- passive process, ending with equalibrium
diffusion
- change over space
- difference in the concentration of a chemical form from one place to another
concentration gradient
-oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids, urea, and water _____ diffuse through membrane
CAN
- gradient
- temp
- mass
- area
- distance
-are all factors of ____
diffusion
-passive process
-substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of membranes of cells without help of membrane transport proteins
EX: nonpoloar, hydrophobic molecules such as 02, C02, nitrogen gases, fatty acids
-small, uncharged polar molecules suck as water and urea
simple diffusion
- still follows the gradient
- solute moves down the gradient through a membrane channel
- many are “gated” opening in response to a stimulus (commonly, voltage)
channel mediated facilitated diffusion
-substance moves down its concentration to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion)
passive processes
- cellular energy is used to drive substance uphill against its concentration, the cellular energy used is in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- ionic concentration gradients
active processes
-substances may enter and leave cells is an active process in which tiny, spherical membrane sacs called ____ are used
vesicles
- passive process, but requires a carrier (transporter) molecule
- an open channel could bind a carrier from the carrier cytosol as well-transport could be reversed if the gradient changes
- limited carriers=transport maximum and saturation
carrier mediated facilitated diffusion
The number of carriers available in a plasma membrane places an upper limit, called the ____, facilitated diffusion can occur
transport maximum
____ are integral membrane proteins that allow specific, small inorganic ions to pass across the membrane by facilitated diffusion
channels
____ are integral membrane proteins that undergo changes in shape in order to move substances across the membrane by facilitated diffusion
carriers
- passive process
- solute builds up on one side of the membrane (the concentration gradient grows)
- water (solvent) moves instead of solute
osmosis
-any solution in which a cell (RBC) maintains its normal shape and volume
isotonic solution
- a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the RBCs
- water rushes in
hypotonic solution
- has a higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside RBCs
- water rushes out and causes the cell to shrink (crenates)
hypertonic solution
- indirectly powered by ATP
- uses gradient by primary active transport
- carrier protein binds to Na and another substance and then changes shape so that both substances can cross at the same time
secondary active transport
- indirectly powered by ATP
- uses gradient by primary active transport
- carrier protein binds to Na and another substance and then changes shape so that both substances can cross at the same time
secondary active transport
-moving two substances in opposite directions across the membrane is called ____
antiporters
Reasons for ____:
- maintain cell volume by regulating tonicity (homeostasis)
- generate electrical signals
- regulate pH
- dietary glucose and amino acids
diffusion
-movement of substance into a cell in vesicles
endocytosis
-also called pinocytosis or cell drinking, a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up
bulk phase endocytosis
- plasma membrane folds inward and forms a vesicle containing a droplet of ECF
- the vesicle detaches or pinches off from the plasma membrane and enters the cytosol
- within the cell, the vesicle fuses with lysosomes, where enzymes degrade the engulfed solutes
bulk phase endocytosis
- plasma membrane folds inward and forms a vesicle containing a droplet of ECF
- the vesicle detaches or pinches off from the plasma membrane and enters the cytosol
- within the cell, the vesicle fuses with lysosomes, where enzymes degrade the engulfed solutes
bulk phase endocytosis
- normal life of the cell
- consists of 3 stages G1, S, and G2
- cell does most of its growing in this phase
interphase
- normal life of the cell
- consists of 3 stages G1, S, and G2
- cell does most of its growing in this phase
interphase
- DNA replication occurs
- last up to about 8 hours
S phase
- cell metabolically
- duplicates organelles and cytosolic components
G1 phase
- cell growth continues
- enzymes and other proteins are synthesized
G2 phase
- normal process on hold in order to divide
- result is two identical cells
mitotic phase
- the distribution of two sets of chromosomes into separate nuclei
- somatic cell division
- 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
mitosis/nuclear division
- chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids
- nucleolus and nuclear envelops disappear,
- each centrosome moves to an opposite side of the cell
prophase
- chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids
- nucleolus and nuclear envelops disappear,
- each centrosome moves to an opposite side of the cell
prophase
-centromeres of chromatid pairs line up
metaphase
- nuclear envelops and nucleoli reappear
- chromosomes resume chromatin form
- mitotic spindle disappears
telophase
- the reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries,testes)
- produces gametes in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, not identical cells
meiosis
-_____ begins with a diploid starting cell and ends with two cells, each with the haploid number of chromosomes
meiosis I
- during ____, each of the two haploid cells formed during meiosis I divides
- the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell
- most similar to mitosis
meiosis II
-a measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content
tonicity
-a measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content
tonicity
- the higher the column of solution on one side, the more pressure it exerts on the other side, pressure exerted in this way by a liquid known as ____
- forces water molecules back to the other side
hydrostatic pressure
- solution with impermable solute exerts a force called ____
- its proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that cannot cross the membrane
- the higher the solute concentration, the higher the solutions ____
osmotic pressure
A group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities
tissue
4 basic tissue types :
epithelial
connective
muscular
nervous
- tissue that covers body surface
- lines hollow organs
- forms glands
epithelial
- tissue that protects and supports the body
- storage for fat
- helps provide body with immunity
connective
- tissue that generates movement
- generates heat
muscular
- tissue that detects changes in body
- generates signals
nervous
-contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells
cell junctions
- weblike strands of trans-mb proteins that fuse together outer surfaces
- seal passageways between adjacent cells
- inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the epithelial tissue of the digestive and urinary systems from leaking
tight junctions
- contains plaque, dense layer of proteins, connects to microfilaments
- have _____, which are trans-mb glycoproteins that join cells
- _____ in epithelial cells, resist seperation
adherens junction
cadherins
adhesion belts
- contains plaque, but connected to the intermediate filaments, which extend through cytosol to the other side
- spot welding = strong
- epidermis, cardiac muscle, resist huge amount of stress
desmosomes
- hemi (half) a desmosome
- one side is the same but they dont connect cell to basement membrane
- they are integrin, not cadherin
- integrin attach the protein laminin
hemidesmosome
- membrane proteins called connexins form fluid-filled tunnels
- allows transfer of small molecules and ions but not large molecules
- developing embryo, as well as nervous and muscle tissues
- rapid communication
gap junctions
- ____ tissue with many cells tightly packed together and little to no extracellular matrix
- ____ tissue with a few scattered cells surrounded by large amount of extracellular matrix
- epithelial
- connective
- _____ arranged in two general patterns
1. covering and lining various surfaces
2. forming the secreting portions of galnds
Functions: protects, and scretes ( mucus, hormones, and enzymes), absorbs (nutrients), and excretes (substances from urinary tract)
epithelial tissue
- ____ of an epithelial cell faces the body surface, and body cavity, the lumen of an internal organ, or a tubular duct
- may contain cilia or microvilli
apical surface
- _____ of an epithelial cell faces the adjacent cells on either side
- may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions
lateral surfaces
- ____ the deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to extracellular materials such as basement membrane
- hemidesmosomes anchor the epithelium to the basement membrane
basal surface
- is a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers, the basal lamina and reticular lamina
- found between epithelial and connective tissue
basement membrane
- closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells
- contains proteins such as laminin and collogen, as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans
- adhere to integrins in hemidesmosomes and to basement membrane
basil lamina
- is closer to the underlying connective tissue
- contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells call fibroblast
reticular lamina
-epithelial tissue are ____, relying on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove waste
avascular
- forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs
- forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
covering and lining epitheliam/sutface epithelium
-makes up the secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, sweat glands, and digestive glands
glandular epithelium
3 arrangements of cells in layers:
simple epithelium
pseudostratified epithelium
stratified epithelium
-is a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption
simple epithelium
- appears to have multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface
- actually a simple epithelium because all its cells rest on the basement membrane
- cells that do extend to the apical surface may contain cilia, other (goblet cells) secrete mucus
pseudostratified epithelium
-consists of two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear
stratified epithelium
- a single layer of flay cells that resembles a tiled floor
- allows rapid exchange
- ex: CV, lymphatic, lungs, kidneys
- function: present at sites of filtration
simple squamous epithelium
- is a single layer of cubed shaped cells, centrally located nucleus
- secretes and absorb
- kidneys, many glands
simple cuboidal epithelium
- found in GI tract, ducts of glands
- microvilli maximize surface area for absorption
- have goblet cells that secrete mucus
non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium
-modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surface
goblet cells
- respiratory tract, fallopian tubes and uterus
- cilia beat in unison, moving particles along the surface
ciliated simple columnar epithelium
- absorbs and secretes
- larger ducts of many glands
noncilated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- upper respiratory tract
- secretes mucous trap particles, sweep upward, away from lungs
ciliated pseud`ostratified columnar epithelium
- 2 + layers of cells
- those on apical surface are far from the blood supply, they dehydrate and toughen up. Cells die, slough off, and are replaced
- function: protection
stratified squamous epithelium
- 2 + layers of cubes
- used for protection
- limited secretion and absorption
stratified cuboidal epithelium
- basal layers are irregular
- apical layer is regular
- used for protection and secretion
stratified columnar epithelium
- has a variable appearance
- as tissue is stretched , cells become flatter
- lines urinary bladder
- allows urinary organs to stretch
transitional epithelium (urothelium)
-consists of epithelium that secretes substance into ducts, onto a surface, or eventually into the blood
glands
- (inside) called hormones, enter the intestinal fluid and then diffuse into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct
- maintains homeostasis
- Ex: pituitary gland, pineal gland
endocrine glands
- (outside) secrete their products into the ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ
- produce sweat, oil, earwax
- Ex: sweat glands, oil glands
exocrine glands
- synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER, produced by golgi complex
- released by exocytosis
- these are what most exocrine glands are
- ex: salivary glands, pancreas
merocrine glands
- exocrine gland that accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell
- that portion is pinched off by exocytosis to release secretions
- cell repairs itself and repeats process
- function: secretion of milk fats
apocrine glands
- exocrine gland that accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol
- ruptures and becomes the secretory product
- secretion contains large amount of lipids from plasma membrane and intracellular membranes
- cell replaced by a new one
- ex: sebaceous gland
holocrine glands
- one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body
- variety of functions
connective tissue
- in connective tissue, material located between its widely spaced cells
- consists of protein fibers, and ground substance, the material between the cells and fiber
extracellular matrix
- -component of a connective tissue between the cells and fibers
- may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified
- supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides a medium for exchanging substances between blood and cells
ground substance
- in connective tissue, made of collogen and glycoproteins
- provide support in blood vessel walls and form branching networks around various cells
reticular fibers
- in connective tissue, stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin, and fibrillin
- found in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue
elastic fibers
- in connective tissue, are strong, flexible bundles of protein collogen
- most abundant protein in body
collogen fibers
- an embryonic connective tissue, irregular shaped cells embedded in semifluid ground substance
- located under skin and along bones of embryo
- forms almost all other types of connective tissue
mesenchyme
- an embryonic connective tissue, has widely scattered fibroblast in vicous, jellylike ground substance
- located in umbilical cord
- function: support
mucous (mucoid)
- loose connective tissue, widely distributed, randomly arranged fibers and cells
- in and around nearly every body structure
- provides strength, elasticity, and support
aveolar connective tissue
- loose connective tissue, has cells derived from fibroblast
- large centrally droplet
- located deep in subcutaneous layer
- reduces heat loss through skin
adipose connective tissue
- loose connective tissue, is a fine interlacing network of reticular fibers
- located on stroma
- forms stroma of organs
reticular connective tissue
- dense connective tissue, rows of collagen fibers and fibroblast
- forms tendons and ligaments
- strong attachment withstand tension
dense regular connective tissue
- dense connective tissue, made of collagen fibers, irregularly arranged
- often occurs in sheets (fasciae), tissue beneath skin and around muscles
- provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions
dense irregular connective tissue
- dense connective tissue, made of elastic fibers with fibroblast between them
- in lung tissue, trachea, bronchial tubes
- allows stretching in varies organs
elastic connective tissue
- supporting connective tissue, contains a resilient gel (fibers not easily visible)
- at ends of large bones, most abundant cartilage
- provides smooth surface for movement of joints
- has chondrocytes
hyaline cartilage
- supporting connective tissue, has chondrocytes visible thick bundles of collagen fibers
- location symphysis
- support joining structures together, strongest type of cartilage
fibrocartilage
- supporting connective tissue, has chondrocytes in threadlike network of elastic fibers
- located in ears, larynx
- provides strength and elasticity
elastic cartilage
- supporting connective tissue, contains lamellae and lacunae
- located in compact and spongy bone
- supports, protection, storage
compact bone tissue
- are concentric rings of extracellular matrix
- in compact bone tissue
lamellae
-small spaces between lamellae that contain osteocytes: mature blood cells
lacunae
-projecting from lacunae, networks of minute canals containing the processes of osteocytes
canaliculi
- lacks osteons
- consists of columns of bone called trabeculae, which contains lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, and calaliculi
spongy bone
- one of the liquid connective tissue has a liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma and formed elements
- located within blood vessels
- function: RBC, WBC, platelets
blood
- suspended in blood plasma
- RBC’s, WBC’s, platelets
formed elements
-a pale yellow fluid that consists mostly of water with a wide variety of dissolved substances
blood plasma
- the extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels
- function: WBC
lymph
-are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body
membranes
-majority of membranes consist of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer called ___
epithelial membranes
- membranes line body cavities that open to the outside
- protects with mucous
mucous membrane
- membrane line cavities that do not open directly to the outside
- lubrication for lung, protects with a bearer
serous membrane
- membranes that line joints
- provides lubrication
synovial membrane
-skin covers the entire surface of the body and consists of a superficial portion called the epidermis and a deeper portion called dermis
skin cutaneous membrane
- tissue consists of elongated cells use muscle fibers, or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force
muscular tissue
- consists of long strips, cylindrical, striated fibers
- voluntary
- attached to bones via tendons
- function: motion, posture, heat production. protection
skeletal muscle tissue
- striated fibers, attached by intercalated disc
- involuntary
- location: heart wall
- pumps blood to all parts of body
cardiac muscle tissue
- consists of nonstriated fibers
- involuntary
- located in walls of hollow organs, eyes
- function: motion
smooth muscle tissue
- consists of only two principal types of cells, neurons and neuroglia
- nervous system
- exhibit sensitivity to various types of stimuli
nervous tissue
-nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli
neurons
- tapering, highly branched and usually short cell processes
- major receiving or input portion of a neuron
dendrites
- of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long
- output portion of a neuron
axon
-do not generate or conduct nerve impulses
neuroglia
