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NEURO 3000 > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

scientific method

A
  • observation
  • replication
  • interpretation
  • verification
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2
Q

what drives the scientific method?

A

hypothesis but discovery research also needed

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3
Q

egypt (5000 years ago)

A
  • knew about the brain but it was not important

- heart was the key to the soul and where memories were stored

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4
Q

hippocrates

A

brain is the center of sensation and intelligence and epilepsy=brain damage

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5
Q

alcmaion of crotona

A

described the optic nerve in 500 BC

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6
Q

plato (387 BC)

A

believes brain is the center of mental processes

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7
Q

aristole (384-322 BC)

A

thought heart was the center of intelligence and the brain simply cooled the blood

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8
Q

galen (AD 130-200)

A

a doctor to gladiators that studied the structure of the brain
* had a similar view to hippocrates

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9
Q

what were galen’s beliefs?

A
  • cerebrum felt soft, so sensations and memory formed here
  • cerebellum felt hard, so it controlled muscles
  • the brain received sensory info
  • nerves were tubes
  • humors (vital fluids) flowed to the brain ventricles
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10
Q

leonardo da vinci

A

produced wax cast of ventricles in 1504

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11
Q

andreas vesalius (1514-1264)

A

produced detailed drawings of the brain

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12
Q

decartes (1596-1650)

A

believed in fluid-mechanical theory but that humans abilities came from the “mind” which communicated to the brain via the pineal gland

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13
Q

history of neuroscience in the 17th and 18th century

A
  • distinguished gray matter from white matter
  • peripheral and central divisions
  • every brain has the same pattern GYRI (bumps) and SUCLI & FISSURES (grooves)
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14
Q

grey matter

A

cell bodies of neurons

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15
Q

white matter

A

axons of neurons

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16
Q

19th century views of the brain

A
  • brain generates electricity
  • nerves are made of bundles of fibers
  • each fiber transmission is one way
  • sensory and motor nerves in same bundle
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17
Q

Galvani and du Bois-Reymond

A

showed that electricity can stimulate muscle movement

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18
Q

Bell and Magendie

A

nerves as bundles, motor and sensory nerves in same bundle

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19
Q

bell (1811)

A

proposed that motor fibers come from cerebellum and sensory fibers GO TO cerebellum

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20
Q

flourens (1823)

A
  • used experimental ablation to show bell was correct

- though that all parts of the cerebrum contribute to all functions… WRONG

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21
Q

gall (1809)

A
  • phrenology

- brain divided into 35 regions (language, color, hope) shown to be WRONG

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22
Q

broca

A

believed that different functions localized to different areas

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23
Q

fritsch and hitzig

A

used dogs and frogs in 1870 to show specific region of the brain controlled movement

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24
Q

ferrier

A

1881 showed the same thing as fritsch and hitzig with monkeys; removal caused paralysis

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25
Q

munk

A

showed that occipital lobe was required for vision

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26
Q

evolution of nervous system

A

1859 Darwin published ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

  • nervous systems have evolved and were related
  • some animals are better at specific functions
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27
Q

squid and snail

A
  • basic biology of neurons
  • synaptic transmission
  • plasticity
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28
Q

cats and primates

A

visual system

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29
Q

rats and mice

A

neuropharmacological and behavioral studies

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30
Q

alzheimer’s disease

A

degeneration of cholinergic neurons, dementia, fatal

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31
Q

parkinson’s disease

A

degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, loss of voluntary movement

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32
Q

depression

A

15 million experience, major cause of suicide

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33
Q

schizophrenia

A

2 million affected, severe psychotic illness. delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre behavior

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34
Q

stroke

A

loss of blood supply can lead to permanent loss of function

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35
Q

epilepsy

A

seizures due to disruption of normal brain electrical activity

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36
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

loss of nerve conduction

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37
Q

nervous system uses large amount of…

A

oxygen and glucose

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38
Q

neurons

A
  • only 10-20% of cells

- 0.01-0.05 mm in diameter

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39
Q

microtome

A

small slices of neurons needed to study the brain

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40
Q

nissil stain

A

labels nuclei of ALL cells but also the nissil bodies (rough endoreticulum) of neurons
*franz nissil in 1894

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41
Q

golgi stain

A

stains ALL parts of neurons but NOT all neurons

- only stains 5%

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42
Q

cajal

A

neurites not continuous, communicate by contact

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43
Q

is the nervous system an exception to the cell theory?

A

NO

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44
Q

soma

A
  • cell body of a neuron
  • 20 um in size
  • the nucleus is 5-10 um
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45
Q

mitochondria

A

widespread throughout the cytoplasm, presynaptic region

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46
Q

neural membrane

A
  • 5 nm thick
  • many proteins embedded in the membrane
  • protein composition varies from soma, axons, and dendrites
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47
Q

microtubules

A
  • 20 um in diameter
  • polymer of tubulin
  • not static
  • associated with other proteins (MAPS)
  • tau found in paired helical filaments seen in alzheimer’s
  • involved in axoplasmic transport
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48
Q

microfilaments

A
  • 5 um in diameter
  • numerous in neurites
  • two thin strands of actin polymers
  • not static
  • closely associated with membrane
  • often seen at synaptic terminals
  • dendritic spines
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49
Q

neurofilaments

A
  • 10 um in diameter
  • also called intermediate filaments
  • strong
  • maintains neuronal shape
  • form tangle in alzheimer’s
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50
Q

axons

A
  • unique to neurons
  • NO rough ER, few ribosomes
  • proteins in membrane differ from those in the soma
  • 1 mm to over a 1 m long
  • form branches or collaterals (some recurrent)
  • diameter varies from 1-25 um
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51
Q

speed of nerve impulse depends on..?

A

diameter, thicker = faster

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52
Q

axon hillock

A
  • beginning of axon

- NO ribosomes or most organelles

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53
Q

terminal

A
  • end of axon
  • NO microtubules
  • many synaptic vesicles
  • protein rich
  • many mitochondria
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54
Q

synapse

A
  • two sides (pre and post)
  • many drugs and chemicals act here
  • malfunctions here are responsible for many mental disorders
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55
Q

synaptic cleft

A

in-between pre and post synapse sides, no direct contact

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56
Q

synaptic transmission

A

mediated by chemical neurotransmitters

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57
Q

wallerian degeneration

A

after axons cut, death distal to injury

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58
Q

axonal transport

A
  • fast axoplasmic (1000 mm/day)

- slow axoplasmic (1-10 mm/day)

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59
Q

anterograde axonal transport

A

walked down microtubules by kinesin, uses ATP

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60
Q

retrograde axonal transport

A

dyeing used along microtubules

- fast 50-250 mm/day

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61
Q

dendrites

A
  • come in different shapes and sizes
  • covered with thousands of synapses
  • some covered with spines; can change structure depending on type
  • polyribosomes often under spines
  • contain microtubules, fewer mictofilaments
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62
Q

dendritic tree

A

collection of all branches that extend from the soma

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63
Q

unipolar or pseudounipolar

A

single process with peripheral branch and central branch

- found in sensory ganglia

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64
Q

bipolar

A

found in sensory structures

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65
Q

multipolar

A

many dendrites, single axon

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66
Q

spiny dendrite

A

ALL pyramidal cells and some stellate cells

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67
Q

aspinous dendrite

A

some stellate cells

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68
Q

golgi type 1 neurons (projection)

A
  • extend between brain regions
  • long axons
  • many pyramidal cells
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69
Q

golgi type 2 neurons (local circuit)

A
  • connect to neurons in vicinity
  • short axons
  • stellate cells
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70
Q

glia

A
  • most of the cells in the brain
  • supportive of neuronal function
  • support synapse formation
  • vasculature
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71
Q

astrocytes

A
  • most numerous glia
  • between neurons
  • express neurotransmitter receptors
  • regulate contents of extracellular space
  • remove NTs from synaptic cleft
  • regulate extracellular ion levels
  • can divide
  • source of the majority of brain tumors
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72
Q

myelinating glia

A
  • oligodendrocytes

- schwann cells

73
Q

ependymal cells

A

line ventricles, direct cell migration during development

74
Q

microglia

A
  • remove debris (phagocytosis)
  • release cytokines
  • may be activated in response to stroke or brain trauma
  • may also be involved in pruning or refining circuits
75
Q

protoplasmic astrocytes

A

in gray matter close to neurons, involved in blood-brain barrier and metabolism

76
Q

fibrous astrocytes

A

repair damaged tissue, may form scars. found primarily in white matter

77
Q

muller astrocytes

A

found in retina

78
Q

oligodendroglia

A

found in brain and spinal cord; myelinate several axons

79
Q

schwann cells

A

found in peripheral nervous system; myelinates single axons, every internode region by one of these

80
Q

neural membrane at rest

A
  • passive conduction of signal only works for short distance
  • need resting potential to generate action potential
  • varies between different types of neurons
81
Q

action potential

A

conduct signal without loss of strength

82
Q

excitable cells

A
  • can generate action potentials (nerve impulse)

- at rest have a resting membrane potential (inside negative compared to outside)

83
Q

how do cells generate a charge difference across the membrane

A

voltage gated channels

84
Q

what do you need to generate the resting potential?

A
  • cytosol
  • plasma membrane
  • membrane proteins
85
Q

cytosol and extracellular fluid

A

water is the major component

- polar molecules dissolve in water bc its polar

86
Q

ions in the cytosol and extracellular fluid

A
  • major charge carrier
  • surrounded by clouds of water called spheres of hydration
  • Ca2+, K+, Na+, and Cl- are important for neurophysiology
87
Q

hydrophilic

A

ions and polar molecules

88
Q

hydrophobic

A

molecules with non polar covalent bonds (oils, lipids)

89
Q

phospholipid membrane

A
  • barrier to water and ions, allows membrane potentials to form
  • in the bilayer, hydrophilic head towards water while hydrophobic tail inside towards membrane
90
Q

amino acids

A
  • 20, properties determined by R group

- chains of these are held together by peptide bonds

91
Q

ion channels

A
  • have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
  • selective
  • can be controlled
92
Q

pumps

A

transport ions across membranes against concentration gradients using ATP as the energy source

93
Q

diffusion

A

random movement from region of high concentration to one of low (concentration gradient) temperature dependent=must have a path through the lipid bilayer (a channel)

94
Q

electrical current (I)

A

movement of charge; positive in the direction of positive charge movement

95
Q

how much current flows depends on…

A
  • electrical potential (voltage, V)

- electrical conductance

96
Q

voltage

A

the measure of the difference in charge between anode and cathode. more difference=more current

97
Q

conductance (g, siemens)

A

relative ability for a charge to move from one place to another, depends on the number of particles available to carry the charge and how easily these can travel

98
Q

resistance (R, ohms)

A

the relative inability of an electric charge to migrate R=1/g

99
Q

ohm’s law

A

I=gV

100
Q

membrane potential (Vm)

A
  • voltage across a membrane
  • typical = -65 Mv
  • inside of cell is MORE negative relative to outside
101
Q

equilibrium state

A

occurs when diffusional and electrical forces are equal and opposite

102
Q

ionic equilibrium potential

A

the potential difference that balances the ionic concentration gradient
voltage that balances diffusion

103
Q

large changes in membrane potential are produced by..

A

tiny changes in ionic concentration (0.00001mM)

104
Q

net difference

A

occurs at the inside and outside surfaces of the membrane (5nm thick), the membrane acts like a capacitor (stores charge)

105
Q

rules for generating a electrical potential difference

A

ions move across the membrane at a rate proportional to the difference between the membrane potential and the equilibrium potential (Vm-Eion). for each different ion is the ionic driving force, move in the direction that moves the cell toward the Eion

106
Q

nernst equation

A
  • ions have their own equilibrium potential
  • charge and concentration difference determines whether inside of cell is positive or negative at equilibrium for each ion
107
Q

what is the equilibrium potential of potassium, K+?

A

-80 mV

108
Q

what is the equilibrium potential of sodium, Na+?

A

+62 mV

109
Q

what is the equilibrium potential of calcium, Ca2+?

A

+123 mV

110
Q

what is the equilibrium potential of chloride, Cl-?

A

-65 mV

111
Q

ion pumps

A

work against the concentration gradient

112
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

uses ATP for energy source, exchanges internal Na+ for external K+, used 70% of brain ATP

113
Q

calcium pump

A

transfers Ca2+ out of the cell, other proteins and channels help as well

114
Q

goldman equation

A

relative permeability to multiple ions can be factored in

*if cell 40x more permeable to K+ than Na+, then Vm= -65mV

115
Q

K+ channels

A
  • key to determining a neurons resting Vm
  • first cloned in fruit fly
  • mutations here lead to severe neurological problems or death
116
Q

external K+ must be carefully regulated

A
  • membrane potential close to K+ due to high permeability of the cell
  • changing K+ outside can change membrane potential
  • can cause cell to depolarize
  • blood-brain barrier
  • death by lethal injection
117
Q

hodgkin and katz (1949)

A

used manipulation of the external K+ concentration to show that resting potential is mostly set by K+ permeability of neuron

118
Q

other names of action potential

A

spike, discharge, or nerve impulse

119
Q

stages of action potentials

A
  • resting
  • rising
  • overshoot
  • falling
  • undershoot
120
Q

generator potential produced by…

A

entry of positive charge into cell

121
Q

properties of action potentials

A
  • all or none mechanism

- firing frequency can reflect size of inout current

122
Q

absolute refractory period

A
  • Na+ channels inactived, can’t be deinactivated until Vm is more negative
  • maximum rate 1000Hz, 1 msec
123
Q

relative refractory period

A
  • Vm hyperpolarized until K+ channels close

- more current required to fire action potential

124
Q

what controls the firing frequency of action potential?

A

amount of depolarization

*more stimulation=more firing

125
Q

hodgkin and huxley

A
  • used voltage clamp to determine ionic permeability changes during the AP
  • early inward current is carried by Na+
  • late outward current carried by K+
  • membrane voltage changes are time and voltage dependent
126
Q

action potential theory

A
  • depolarization caused by influx of Na+ ions
  • depolarization by efflux of K+ ions
  • rising phase due to inward Na+ current
  • falling phase due to outward K+ current
    I=g(Vm-Eion)
127
Q

change in Na+ channel

A

-65mV closed to -40mV opened

128
Q

voltage-gated sodium channels

A
  • open and closed by changes in membrane potential Vm
  • one long protein
  • 4 domains of 6 transmembrane helixes
  • association with water important for selectivity
  • segment S4 contains voltage sensor
129
Q

tetrodotoxin (TTX)

A

from puffer fish, blocks channel

130
Q

saxitoxin

A

from dinoflagellate, occurs in clams, shellfish, mussels

131
Q

bactrachotoxin

A

from frog, channels open at more negative voltages and stay open too long

132
Q

scorpion and sea anemone toxins affect…

A

channel inactivation

133
Q

voltage-gated K+ channels

A
  • falling phase of AP also due to opening of K+ channels, NOT just Na+
  • delayed opening after depolarization
  • delayed rectifier channels
134
Q

threshold of AP

A

voltage at which Na+ channels open, more permeable to Na

135
Q

rising phase of AP

A

Na+ ions enter cell due to large driving force

136
Q

overshoot of AP

A

voltage approaches equilibrium of Na+, greater than 0mV

137
Q

falling phase

A

Na+ channels inactive, K+ channels open, large driving force for K+ to leave the cell

138
Q

undershoot

A

voltage moves toward equilibrium of K+. hyperpolarizing the cell, little permeability to Na+

139
Q

gradients maintained by…

A

Na-K pump

140
Q

action potential conduction

A
  • moves down axon in ONE direction
  • can be started at either end
  • 10 m/s, lasts 2 msec
141
Q

orthodromic

A

AP starting from cell body

142
Q

antidromic

A

backward AP

143
Q

synapses (person)

A

sherrington 1897

144
Q

electrical synapses

A

furshpan and potter 1959

145
Q

chemical synapses

A

loewi and vagusstoff 1921

146
Q

katz

A

motor neuron to muscle

147
Q

eccles

A

central nervous system

148
Q

bidirectional synapse

A

cells are electronically coupled, fast

- common in mammalian CNS, glia, cardiac muscle cells, smooth muscle, epithelial cells, liver cells

149
Q

is the synaptic cleft empty?

A

NO but it contains extracellular matrix proteins

150
Q

postsynaptic density

A

receptors and associated proteins

151
Q

chemical synapses

A

presynaptic and possynaptic with a 20-50 nm cleft

152
Q

CNS synapses

A
  • various sizes and configurations

- axodendtritic, axosomatic, axoaxonic, dendrodentritic

153
Q

gray’s type 1

A

asymmetrical membrane thickness at synapse, usually excitatory

154
Q

gray’s type 2

A

symmetrical, usually inhibitory

155
Q

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

A
  • between motor neurons and muscle
  • similar to CNS synapses
  • easier to study than CNS synapses
  • fast, large, reliable synapses
156
Q

principles of synaptic transmission

A
  • neurotransmitter synthesis
  • load NT into synaptic vesicles
  • vesicles fuse to presynaptic terminal
  • binds to postsynaptic receptors
  • biochemical/electrical response elicited in postsynaptic cell
  • removal of NT from synaptic cleft
157
Q

neurotransmitter synthesis and storage

A
  • various transmitters have distinct synthetic pathways
  • in all cells (amino acids)
  • specific enzymes in neurons which synthesize unique transmitter
  • some neurons make multiple NTs
158
Q

neurotransmitter release

A
  • opening of voltage gated Ca2+ channels, large influx of Ca2+
  • exocytosis, occurs rapidly, fusion of synaptic vesicle with membrane of active zone
  • some vesicles may be already docked
  • vesicle membrane recycled by endocytosis, multiple ways for this
  • peptides not released at active zone, slower time course, generally respond to higher Ca
159
Q

neurotransmitter receptors

A
  • 100 different ones
  • gated or ligand-gated
  • g-protein coupled
  • nAChRs
160
Q

transmitter-gated channels

A
  • pore usually closed until ligand binds
  • 4-5 subunits, change conformation after ligand binds, channel opens within microseconds
  • not as selective as voltage-gated channels
  • ACh gates Na, K, Ca, excitatory, EPSPs
  • Cl gated, IPSP, glycine, GABA
161
Q

G-protein coupled receptors

A
  • slower acting
  • amino acids, amines, peptides
  • also called metabotropic receptors
  • autoreceptors are often linked to this
162
Q

neurotransmitter reuptake and degradation

A
  • NT must be destroyed or removed from synaptic cleft to terminate signaling
  • diffusion
  • desensitization
163
Q

reuptake is done by..

A

specific transporters

164
Q

degradation is done by..

A

enzymes, blockade can result in death

165
Q

neuropharmacology

A

many chemicals, diseases, and drugs can affect each of these steps

166
Q

curare, cobra venom are…

A

antagonists

167
Q

nicotine is an….

A

agonist

168
Q

botulinum toxin

A

blocks transmitter release

169
Q

black window venom

A

increases ACh release

170
Q

synaptic integration

A

process in which these multiple inputs combine within one neuron, output then determined

171
Q

integration of EPSPs

A
  • thousands of channels
  • number that opens depend of quantity of NT released
  • amplitude is multiple of mini-amplitude
172
Q

quantum

A

number of transmitter molecules in a vesicle (several thousand)

173
Q

quantal analysis of EPSPs

A
  • compare miniature and evoked potentials to decide how much NT is released
  • at NMJ 200 vesicles, -40mV needs to work every time
174
Q

dendritic cable properties

A
  • electrically passive calls
  • currents will dissipate over a distance
    Vx=Vo /e^(x/), e=2.718
    V=0.37 (Vo)
175
Q

lamda

A
  • length constant, where depolarization is 37% of original current
  • gives some idea how far away from axon hillock depolarization can occur and still get AP
176
Q

what does lambda depend on?

A

internal resistance and membrane resistance

177
Q

internal resistance depends on

A

diameter and electrical properties of cytoplasm (constant in mature neuron)

178
Q

membrane resistance

A

depends on synaptic activity and how many ion channels open

NEURO 3000 (16 decks)

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