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Animal Physiology 4460 > Energy Balance > Flashcards

Energy Balance Flashcards

1
Q

Energy in equals…

A

Energy out

*bucket theory?

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2
Q

What is positive energy balance?

A

More energy coming in than going out

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3
Q

 what is negative energy balance?

A

More energy out than coming in

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4
Q

energy is…

A

The capacity to do work

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5
Q

Energy is…

A

The capacity to do work

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6
Q

What is the energy currency that cells use?

A

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 

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7
Q

ATP provides the “fuel” to perform what three types of work?

A
  • Mechanical work (muscle contraction, ciliary and flagellar movement)
  • Transport work (moving ions and other molecules across cell membranes, absorption and secretion)
  • Chemical work (building molecules)
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8
Q

ATP is synthesize metabolically by cellular respiration. As a result, energy balance is centered around the….

A

Chemical reaction to synthesize ATP

C6H12O6 + 6(H2O) + 6(O2) ——> 6(CO2) + 12(H2O) + ATP + Heat 

Note that the metabolic process generates H2O and produces heat. Not our immediate concern but these are important for later topics related to fluid balance and thermal balance

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9
Q

What are the physiological systems needed to provide the “inputs” for cellular respiration?

A

• digestice system to provide glucose and other chemical intermediates
• accessory glands to aid the digestive system and digestive process
• endocrine and nervous system to regulate
• respiratory system to provide the O2 and eliminate CO2


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10
Q



A
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11
Q

Metabolic processes generate ____ and produce _______

A

H2O, heat

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12
Q

What are the four major layers of the G.I. tract?

A
  1. Mucosa
  2.  submucosa
  3. Muscularis externa
  4. Serosa
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13
Q

What does the mucosa (1) include?

A 
Mucus membrane (epithelium)
Lamina propria (connective tissue)
Muscularis mucosa (smooth muscle)
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14
Q

What kind of tissue is the submucosa (2)? What is located here?

A

Connective tissue, the location of most glands

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15
Q

What is the muscularis externa composed of? What type of tissue is it?

A
  • Circular muscle (diameter shrinkage)
  • longitudinal muscles (length shrinkage)

Smooth muscle

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16
Q

What are the three main serosal membranes?

A
  1. Pleura
  2. Pericardium
  3. Peritoneum

All habe a visceral peritoneum (Serosa), this is what faces the organ

And parietal peritoneum

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17
Q

What are the four types of epithelial membranes? 

A
  1. Cutaneous (skin)- Epidermidis is the epithelial part, and dermis the connective tissue part
  2. Mucous membrane- wet membrane that faces the external environment of hollow structures of the body that connect to the surface
  3. Serosa membrane- wet membrane that lines closed cavities not connected to surface -two layers, parietal lines outer cavity and visceral lines outside of organs
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18
Q

What are the four main divisions of the digestive system?

A
  1. Motility-mix or move contents along
  2. Digestion- Breaking the bonds mechanically and chemically
  3. Secretion- enzymes, mucus
  4. Absorption- movement outside to inside the body ex: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, water
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19
Q

Where are proteins mostly digested? Begin to be digested? 

A

Stomach

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20
Q

Where does most of the chemical digestion take place? 

A

Small intestine.

Taken into cells for fuel or to store energy

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21
Q

Digestion begins in the oral cavity by what two main mechanisms? 

A
  • mastication-grinding and chewing of food with teeth mechanically
  • salivary amylase- enzyme to digest starch into glucose
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22
Q

What are the regions of the stomach?

What are the two sphincters of the stomach?

A

-Fundus (top), body, atrium (bottom)

Lower Esophageal sphincter and pyloric sphincter

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23
Q

How much chyme is released into the small intestine at a time in order to slowly process nutrients

A

Only 1 mm at a time

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24
Q

What are the folds of the stomach called?

A

Rugae 

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25
Q

What are the main functions of the stomach?

A

• Control movement of chyme (chewed food mixed with gastric juice) into small intestine
• kill bacteria by low pH
• begin protein digestion (denature proteins by acid and low pH, and protein digestion by secreted proteolytic enzymes)


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26
Q

What are the important cells of the gastric mucosa?

A

Gastric glands

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27
Q

What protects the lining of the stomach from hydrochloric acid?

A

Neck cells that secrete mucus (located in gastric pits) 

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28
Q

What do chief cells secrete?

What do you parietal cells secrete?

A

Pepsinogen 

Acid 

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29
Q

What do G cells secrete? 

A

The hormone gastrin

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30
Q

What is the list of important cells in the stomach? 

A
  •  neck cells
  • chief cells
  • parietal cells
  • G cells
  • gastic glands 
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31
Q

Acid secretion in the stomach is regulated by….

A

Parietal cells

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32
Q

What is the function of tight junctions?

A

Prevents inter-paracellular movement

(Think of plastic that goes around six pack of soda)

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33
Q

What is the function of acid in the stomach?

A

To denature proteins and facilitate protein digestion and kill bacteria

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34
Q

Parietal cell:
apical membrane…
Basolateral membrane…

A

Apical membrane: portion of the membrane faces lumen, the portion that forms tight junctions

Basolateral membrane:

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35
Q

zymogen…

A

Is an enzyme precursor, the protein you have left changes the function

  • partially denatured pepsinogen (by HCL) has some proteolytic activity that cleave some pepsinogen into pepsin*
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36
Q

This is a long-term regulator of appetite that is produced by fat 

A

Leptin

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37
Q

Protease digests _______

A

Peotiens

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38
Q

Enzyme secretion in the stomach is regulated by _____ cells 

A

Chief

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39
Q

What are the two phases in the control of enzyme and acid secretion?

A
  1. Cephalic phase

2. Gastric phase 

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40
Q

What is the cephalic phase? 

A

Thought and smell of food stimulates parasipathetic neural inputs (ACh) to G-cells and parietal cells

a. ACh directly stimulates acid secretion from parietal cell
b. ACh stimulates gastrin secretion from G cell which in turn acts hormonally on parietal cells to simulate acid secretion

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41
Q

What is the gastric phase?

A

Once food is in the stomach, mechanically distention of the stomach and presence of proteins and protein breakdown products act on mechanoreptors and chemo receptors that in turn act through the enteric nervous system to further simulate both G-cells and parietal cells.  they also feedback to autonomic to further stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system. 

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42
Q

Most digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs in the…

A

Small intestine

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43
Q

____________ of the small intestine is particularly important because secretions from the gallbladder and pancreas make their way into the lumen by way of common bile duct and pancreatic duct respectively

A

Duodenium (most digestion happens here)

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44
Q

What does bile digest?

A

Fat (triglycerides) 

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45
Q

Pancreatic (exocrine) secretion of ___________ rich solution helps neutralize chyme coming from the stomach so digestive enzymes from the pancreas will work to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins

A

Bicarbonate 

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46
Q

What does the apical membrane of the small intestines have?

A

Brush border composed of microvilli*

The opposite side is the basolateral membrane

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47
Q

What are the three segments of the small intestine?

A

Duodenum, jejunum, ileum

48
Q

The dips between villi are called…

Are they secretory or absorb?

A

Crypt of Lieberkühn

Euterocytes (secretory) 

49
Q

What are the projections from the small intestine called? 

Is it secratory or absorptive?

A

Villi (on the villi is a bunch of microvilli)

Entrocytes (absorptive) 


50
Q

What is the lymph vessel associated with the Villus called? What is its purpose?

A

Lacteal

Fat absorption

51
Q

Where does the pancreatic duct and the CBD merge?

And what is the associated sphincter?

A

Ampulla of Vater 

Sphincter of Oddi

52
Q

What are the endocrine associated cells of the pancreas?

What is the exocrine associated cells of the pancreas?

A

Islet cells (secrete hormones)

Aclinar cells (secrete enzymes), duct cells (secrete bicarbonate rich fluid)

53
Q

How many glucose molecules are in maltose? And what kind of saccharide is it?

A

Two, disaccharide

54
Q

What two enzymes digest carbohydrates in the small intestine?

A

 salivary amylase glands, and pancreatic amylase (secreted from exocrine pancreas) breakdown polysaccharides like glycogen and starch into maltose or “limit dextrins” 

55
Q

What breaks down maltose into 2 glucose. 

A

Brush border enzymes (stuck in cell membrane) such as maltase

56
Q

Glucose is absorbed into the mesenteric blood capillaries by ___________ Cotransport with _____

A

Secondary active, Na+

57
Q

H2O always follows ________ transport by osmosis

A

Solute***

It does not matter where, it always happens! 

58
Q

What is primary active transport?

A
  • pump; ATP used to move solute “uphill”

- Na+,K+ pump (keep [Na+] inside low) 

59
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A
  • One solute is “pumped” uphill while one solute diffuses downhill
  • Cotransport —> both move in same direction
  • Na+ flows down
  • glucose pumped uphill 
60
Q

What are some examples of other enzymes the brush border has for small carbs and dextrins? 

A

•Sucrase for sucrose (glucose plus fructose)
• lactase for lactose (galactose plus glucose)
• dextrinase for dextrins (small glucose polysaccharides)
* simple sugars like fructose and galactose are absorbed similar to glucose

61
Q

Brush border enzymes

A

Enterokinase

62
Q

Where are zymogens produced? 

A

Pancreas

63
Q

3 precursors in the lumen of the small intestine that’s produced pancreas? 

A

Zymofens: trypsinogen, chymotrysinogen, procarboxypetidase

64
Q

What does the zymogen trysinogen lead to?

A

(Enterokinase)—-> Trypsin —> chymotrypsin —-> proteins

(Enterokinase) —-> Trypsin —> carboxypeptidase —>proteins

65
Q

What does the zymogen chymotrypsinogen lead to?

A

Chymotrypsin —-> proteins

66
Q

what does procarboxypeptiase lead to?

A

Carboxypeptidase —> proteins

67
Q

What are the cells that line the small intestine?

A

Enterocytes

68
Q

This is cuts in the middle of protein (trypsin and chymotrysin)

A

Endopeptidases

69
Q

Cuts amino acid of the carboxyl end

A

Carboxypeptidase

70
Q

Once proteins are digested to individual amino acids, the amino acids are absorbed into the _____________ by the same mechanism as _________.

A

Mesenteric capillaries, glucose

  • secondary active cotransport of amino acids with Na+ 
71
Q

What is synthesized by the liver and stored in the gallbladder that plays an important role to emulsify fats (keep in small droplets) which allows lipases that are secreted from exocrine pancreas to work more efficiently

A

Bile salts

72
Q

Bike salts are ___________, meaning they are both polar and nonpolar

A

Amphipathic

73
Q

By the salts are made up of cholesterol and _________. 

A

Phospholipids

74
Q

As gut motility breaks fat globules into smaller droplets, _________ attaches to fat droplets and allow them to stay small

A

Bile salts

75
Q

What is it called when fat globules are broken down into smaller amphipathic droplets?

A

Emulsification

This produces somthing like miclles

76
Q

What is enterhepatic circulation of bile salts?

A

After the fat are digested and absorbed, biosalts are reabsorbed (by capillaries) into the ileum and returned to the liver (via portal vein) for reprocessing and storage in the gallbladder.

77
Q

Digestion and absorption of triglycerides is _____-stage 

A

Multistaged

78
Q

What are the 6 steps of digestion and absorption of triglycerides?

A
  1. Pancreatic lipase digest triglycerides into monoglyceride and fatty acids (FA)
  2. Micelles foreign in the gu lumen
  3. Monoglycerides and fatty acids absorbed from micelle by simple diffusion across apical membrane of enterocyte because plasma membranes are fat soluble
  4. Once inside interocyte, monoglyceride and FAs reform into triglyceride and added to a larger molecule called a chylomicron.
  5. Chylomicron moved across basolateral membrane by exocytosis
  6. Diffuses into lacteal (lymph vessel of villus)  and eventually returns to venous circulation
79
Q

______________ is a triglyceride, apolipoprotein, cholesterol (similar to a low density lipoprotein or what we call “bad” cholesterol

A

Chylomicron

80
Q

Monoglycerides and fatty acids are absorbed from micelles by _________ diffusion

A

Simple

Because plasma membranes are fat soluble

81
Q

How are chylomicrons moved across basolateral membranes? 

A

By exocytosis

82
Q

Stimulates gastric secretion and motility; stimulates ileal motility and relaxes ileocecal sphincter; stimulates mass movement of the colon

A

Gastrin

83
Q

What is the site of secretion for gastrin? 

A

Stomach (G cells) 

84
Q

What is the stimulus for gastrin?

A

Proteins and protein digestion products in stomach; distention of stomach; parasympathetic input to stomach

85
Q

Inhibits gastric secretion and motility, potentates actions of secretion on pancreatic bicarbonate secretion; stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion; stimulates bile secretion by liver; stimulates gallbladder contraction and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK) 

86
Q

What is the site of secretion for cholecystokinin (CCK)? 

A

Endocrine cells of the small intestine

87
Q

What is the stimuli for secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK)? 

A

Fat or protein digestion products in the duodenum

88
Q

Inhibits gastric secretion and motility, stimulates pancreatic bicarbonate secretion, potentates actions of CCK on pancreatic enzyme secretion, stimulate bile secretion by liver 

A

Secretin

89
Q

What is the site of secretion for secretin?

A

Endocrine cells of small intestine

90
Q

What is the stimuli for secretion of secretin?

A

Acid in the duodenum

91
Q

Inhibits gastric secretion in motility, stimulates insulin secretion by endocrine pancreas

A

Glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)

  • feedforward mechanism
92
Q

 what is the site of secretion for GIP?

A

Endocrine cells of small intestine

93
Q

What is the stimuli for secretion of GIP?

A

Glucose, fats, or acid in duodenum and stretch of duodenum

94
Q

 large intestine mainly for last absorption of _________

A

Water

95
Q

Intestine is NOT an __________ organ. Feces is simply the part of food that is undigestible 

A

Excretory 

96
Q

 metabolism, or synthesis of ATP as needed, is a rather _________ process

A

Constant

Whereas eating is episodic

97
Q

What are the two states of metabolism?

A
  1.  absorptive state-  The time after meal when digestion and absorption is occurring, 3 to 4 hours
  2. Postabsorptive state- The time after absorption before the next meal
98
Q

Hormonal regulation of absorptive state and post absorptive state heavily centers on the regulation of _________. Why?

A

Plasma glucose

The brain can only use glucose as an energy source 

99
Q

Everything must be orchestrated to keep plasma __________ add a reasonly constant level for neurons. 

A

Glucose

(this is not completely true, but it is generally true, and it makes the pattern of response make sense) 

100
Q

Assuming a mixed diet of carbs, proteins, and fats….

________ is the primary hormone of the absorptive state

A

Insulin

101
Q

Assuming a mixed diet of carbs, proteins, and fats….

________, __________, and _________ are the main hormones involved in the post absorb of state

A

Glucagon, growth hormone, and cortisol

102
Q

After a meal, plasma glucose increases above _____ mg/dl.

A

90

103
Q

Insulin is secreted from _________ cells of endocrine pancreas

A

Pancreatic Beta 

104
Q

Insulin works on ______ cells in the body

A

Most

105
Q

What does insulin do? 

A

Shifts towards glucose utilization and storage of extra

106
Q

_______ stimulates only GIP

A

Sugar

107
Q

Making glucose from non-glucose sources

A

Gluconeogoenisis

108
Q

This opposes protein breakdown and acts to spare proteins

A

Growth hormone 

109
Q

Metabolically, _________ allows full use of proteins as an energy source

A

Cortisol 

110
Q

If no food continues, about eight hours post absorptive and beyond, Mika Jen stars become to pleated imagining plasma glucose becomes more critical. It becomes a physiological stress – starvation. Cortisol often called stress hormone is secreted from the adrenal cortex

A

Postabsortive #2

111
Q

When plasma glucose dips below setpoint of 90 mg/dl, insulin secretion essentially stops and glucagon secretion (endocrine alpha pancreas cells) begins to rise

A

Postabsorptive #1

112
Q

When glucose is stored in liver and muscle

A

Glycogenesis

113
Q

When glucose or fatty acids are stored in the liver and or adipose tissue

A

 lipogenesis 

114
Q

What are the short term regulators of food intake and Energy balance?

A
  • CCK
  • ghrelin 
  • insulin
115
Q

What is the long-term regulator of food intake and energy balance?

A

Leptin- stimulates sympathetic nervous system

116
Q

What hormone increases appetite and which one decreases appetite? 

A

NPY

AgRP

Animal Physiology 4460 (14 decks)

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