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Anatomy II > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

function of endocrine system

A

change the metabolic activity of cells

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2
Q

neuroendocrine link

A

when the brain generates a nervous impulse and sends the impulse to an endocrine gland to activate it to start secreting

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3
Q

exocrine glands

A

secreted into a duct; does not produce hormones

produces a substance (like sweat)

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4
Q

endocrine glands

A

ductless, hormone-producing, and vascular (so hormones enter bloodstream)

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5
Q

T/F some glands are both endocrine and exocrine

A

true- for example, the pancreas

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6
Q

hormone

A

long-distance chemical messengers

produced in one part of body, affect somewhere else

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7
Q

autocrine

A

chemical messenger that affects the same cells that produce it
“self regulator”

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8
Q

paracrine

A

chemical messenger that affects neighboring cells to where it was produced
local effect

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9
Q

pheromone

A

chemical messenger secreted by one individual that changes activity of another individually
generally a sexual attractant (humans release as sweat)

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10
Q

types of hormones

A

amino acid based

steroid

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11
Q

most hormones are which type?

A

amino acid based

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12
Q

amino acid based hormones

A

water-soluble
transported by plasma in bloodstream; cannot cross plasma membrane
interact with receptor on outside of cell
found everywhere steroid hormones are not

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13
Q

other names for amino acid based hormones

A

peptide/protein/nonsteroid

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14
Q

steroid hormones

A

fat-soluble
cannot be transported by plasma alone; attaches to another molecule
can cross cell’s plasma membrane; attach to receptor inside of cell
found in adrenal cortex and gonads

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15
Q

where are steroid hormones found?

A

adrenal cortex

gonads (ovaries and testes)

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16
Q

steroid hormones find receptors ____ of cell

A

inside

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17
Q

amino acid based hormones find receptors ____ of cell

A

outside

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18
Q

eicosanoid

A

biologically active lipid that functions more like a paracrine than a hormone
local signaling molecule
2 classes: prostaglandins and leukotrines

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19
Q

2 classes of eicosanoids

A

prostaglandins and leukotrines

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20
Q

leukotrienes

A

class of eicosanoid that promotes inflammation

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21
Q

target cells

A

cells with receptors for certain hormones; can have receptors for 1 or > 1 hormone

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22
Q

hormone actions

A 
open or close ion channels
stimulate protein synthesis
activate or deactivate enzymes 
promote secretion
stimulate mitosis
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23
Q

steroid action (process)

A
  1. hormone diffuses through plasma membrane
  2. hormone binds with (specific) intracellular receptor
  3. activated complex binds to receptor protein on DNA
  4. transcription (production of mRNA) initiated
  5. mRNA translated
  6. protein produced
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24
Q

function of steroids

A

produce new proteins

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25
Q

which type of hormone uses direct activation?

A

steroid

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26
Q

mechanisms of amino acid based hormone action

A

Cyclic AMP mechanism

PIP-Calcium mechanism

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27
Q

which type of hormone involves G proteins and secondary messengers for activation?

A

Amino Acid Based

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28
Q

cyclic AMP mechanisms uses how many secondary messengers?

A

1

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29
Q

PIP-Calcium mechanism uses how many secondary messengers?

A

2

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30
Q

cyclic AMP mechanism (process)

A
  1. hormone binds to (external) membrane receptor
  2. modified receptor binds with G protein
  3. G protein is activated
  4. Activated G protein activates adenylate cyclase
  5. Adenylate cyclase generates cAMP from ATP
  6. cAMP stimulates protein kinase reactions (activating proteins that already exist within the cell)
  7. proteins are phosphorylated
  8. phosphodiesterase degrades/shuts down cAMP
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31
Q

which type of hormone mechanism activates proteins that already exist within the cell?

A

cyclic AMP

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32
Q

PIP-Calcium mechanism (process)

A
  1. hormone binds to (external) membrane receptor
  2. modified receptor binds with G protein
  3. G protein is activated
  4. activated G protein activates phospholipase
  5. phospholipase splits PIP2 into DAG and IP3
  6. DAG activates protein kinases
  7. IP3 triggers release of calcium from endoplasmic reticulum
  8. Calcium acts as additional secondary messenger
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33
Q

secondary messenger(s) in cAMP mechanism

A

cAMP

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34
Q

secondary messenger(s) in PIP-Calcium mechanism

A

DAG and Calcium

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35
Q

factors that affect hormone action

A
  • hormone level in bloodstream
  • number of receptors in/on target cells
  • receptor affinity
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36
Q

receptor affinity

A

how easily receptor binds to hormone; incr affinity –> incr. effect of hormone

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37
Q

permissiveness

A

1 hormone functions better when a 2nd hormone is present

Even though 2nd hormone has a different function

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38
Q

synergism

A

2 hormones work better together

they both have the same function

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39
Q

antagonism

A

2 hormones have opposite effects

work in opposition to help fine tune things in body

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40
Q

downregulation

A

continued stress causes decreased # of receptors

body stops trying/relaxes in response to continued stress

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41
Q

upregulation

A

continued stress causes increased number of receptors

body is adapting to continued stress

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42
Q

modes of endocrine gland stimulation

A 
humoral
neural
hormonal
overriden by nervous system
inhibited by negative feedback
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43
Q

humoral regulation

A

change of concentration of something in blood causes gland stimulation
humor=fluid

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44
Q

neural regulation

A

neural stimulation directly contacts gland

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45
Q

hormonal regulation

A

1 hormone causes production of a different hormone

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46
Q

neurohypophysis

A

posterior pituitary gland

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47
Q

adenohypophysis

A

anterior pituitary gland

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48
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

made of neural tissue

stores/regulates hormones (BUT CANNOT PRODUCE)

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49
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

made of glandular tissue
can produce hormones
originated from oral cavity

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50
Q

hormones secreted by posterior pituitary gland

A

oxytocin; ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

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51
Q

hormones secreted by anterior pituitary gland

A 
GH (growth hormone)
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
ACTH (adenocorticotropic hormone)
Gonadotropins- FSH and LH
Prolactin (PRL)
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52
Q

where are neurohypophysal hormones produced?

A

hypothalamus

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53
Q

by what mechanism are neurohypophysal hormones produced?

A

PIP-Calcium mechanism

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54
Q

where are adenohypophysal hormones produced?

A

anterior pituitary gland

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55
Q

what kinds of hormones are adenohypophysal hormones

A

Amino Acid Based

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56
Q

function of oxytocin

A

stimulates smooth muscle contraction; involved in childbirth, milk ejection, orgasm, and nurturing

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57
Q

what is the “cuddle hormone”?

A

oxytocin

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58
Q

how is oxytocin involved with childbirth?

A
  1. fetus grows and stretches uterus
  2. uterus sends stretch signal to brain
  3. brain sends signal to pituitary to secrete oxytocin
  4. oxytocin causes contraction
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59
Q

what functions is oxytocin involved with

A 
childbirth
milk ejection
orgasm/arousal
nurturing
amnesiac (so you forget pain of childbirth)
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60
Q

function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

regulates water balance and prevents urine formation

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61
Q

how does ADH regulate water balance?

A

targets kidneys to resorb H2O, instead of excreting

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62
Q

why do we pee more when were drunk?

A

Alcohol suppresses ADH

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63
Q

what triggers ADH secretion?

A

when blood is too thick; not enough H2O in blood

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64
Q

general process of tropic hormones

A

hypothalamus produces “releaser hormone”
releaser activates special cells in anterior pituitary (these cells have word ‘trop’ in it)
negative feedback mechanism

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65
Q

what do tropic hormones do?

A

cause production of a different hormone

their target cells are another endocrine organ

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66
Q

pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)

A

gives rise to a hormone
opiate (feel good)
activates melanocytes
can activate adrenal cortex

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67
Q

functions of growth hormone

A

stimulates: cell growth/division, protein synthesis, fat metabolism, glucose conservation

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68
Q

Where is GH most active? Why?

A

in muscles and bones; because of an increased number of receptors

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69
Q

how does GH stimulate glucose conservation?

A

changes concentration of glucose in cell to keep it inside

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70
Q

conditions of growth hormone

A

pituitary dwarfism
giantism
acromegaly

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71
Q

pituitary dwarfism

A

too little GH in a child

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72
Q

giantism

A

too much GH in a child

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73
Q

acromegaly

A

too much GH in an adult

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74
Q

growth hormone (GH) process

A
  1. hypothalamus secretes GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)
  2. GHRH activates somatotropin cells of anterior pituitary to begin GH synthesis
  3. GH has both direct and indirect effects on tissues
  4. circulating GH triggers production of GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone)
  5. production of GH stops
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75
Q

direct GH effects on tissues

A

increase blood levels of fatty acids
decrease glucose uptake and metabolism
encourages breakdown and release of glucose from glycogen in the liver

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76
Q

how does GH increase blood levels of fatty acids?

A

it pulls fat from fat stores, making it available to new cells

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77
Q

diabetogenic effect

A

direct action of GH encouraging breakdown and release of glucose from glycogen in liver

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78
Q

indirect actions of GH

A

operate through IGF (Insulin-like growth factors)
stimulates uptake of Amino Acids from blood into cellular proteins
stimulates uptake of sulfur into matrix of cartilage

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79
Q

somatomedins

A

insulin-like growth factors

produced by GH in liver

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80
Q

how does GH stimulate cell and skeletal growth indirectly?

A

by stimulating uptake of Amino acids into cellular proteins and sulfur into matrix of cartilage

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81
Q

another name for TSH

A

thyrotropin

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82
Q

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) function

A

stimulates development and secretion from the thyroid gland

83
Q

process of TSH

A
  1. hypothalamus secretes TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)
  2. TRH causes thyrotrope cells of anterior pituitary to produce TSH
  3. increased levels of TSH inhibit both pituitary gland and hypothalamus (also stimulate production of GHIH)
84
Q

what stimulates production of GHIH?

A

circulating GH and/or increased levels of TSH

85
Q

what does GHIH inhibit?

A

GH and TSH

86
Q

function of adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones (especially glucocorticoids)

87
Q

class of hormone produced most in response to ACTH

A

glucocorticoids

88
Q

process of ACTH

A
  1. hypothalamus secretes CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
  2. CRH stimulates corticotrope cells to release ACTH
  3. increased levels of glucocorticoids stop CRH
  4. ACTH secretion stops
89
Q

stimuli for release of CRH (–> production of ACTH)

A

fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors

90
Q

function of gonadotropins

A

regulate functions of gonads

91
Q

function of FSH

A

stimulate gamete production

92
Q

function of LH

A

promotes production of gonadal hormones

93
Q

which gonadotropin is tropic?

A

LH

94
Q

process of gonadotropins

A
  1. at puberty, hypothalamus secretes GnRH
  2. GnRH stimulates gonadotrope cells to secrete gonadotropins
  3. gonadotropins cause gonads to mature and begin producing hormones
  4. increased levels of gonad hormones suppress FSH and LH
95
Q

male FSH function

A

stimulates sperm production

96
Q

male LH function

A

stimulates interstitial cells of testes to produce testosterone

97
Q

female FSH function

A

stimulates ova production

98
Q

female LH function

A

triggers ovulation and promotes synthesis of ovarian hormones (mostly estrogen, some progesterone)

99
Q

gonadotropin that causes maturation of follicles in an ovary

A

FSH and LH! (both)

100
Q

function of prolactin (PRL)

A

stimulates milk production by breasts

101
Q

what makes PRL different than the other adenohypophysal hormones?

A

it is controlled by an inhibitor (PIH) rather than a releaser

102
Q

why dont men produce PRL?

A

their estrogen levels never get high enough to suppress PIH

103
Q

PRL process in Cycling (nonpregnant) women

A
  1. high estrogen levels stimulate releaser PRL
  2. estrogen stimulates lactotropes to secrete PRL by suppressing PIH production
  3. PRL production tried fur to ovarian hormone cycling
  4. low estrogen levels stimulates production of PIH from hypothalamus
  5. PRL production stops
104
Q

T/F: PRL can cause breast tenderness in non pregnant women

A

true- may cause breast tenderness but no milk!

105
Q

why is production of PRL so short?

A

because ovarian hormone cycling (estrogen levels going up and down)

106
Q

PRL process in Pregnant women

A
  1. high estrogen levels stimulate release of PRL
  2. estrogen stimulates lactotropes to secrete PRL by suppressing PIH production
  3. PRL triggered near end of pregnancy, when estrogen levels get v high
  4. suckling from baby maintains PRL production
  5. lack of suckling and return to normal hormonal cycles leads to PIH production
107
Q

thyroid

A

2 lobes wrapping around the front of trachea connected by isthmus
produce thyroid hormone and calcitonin

108
Q

largest pure endocrine gland

A

thyroid

109
Q

histological composition of thyroid

A

contains follicles made of epithelial cells

contains parafollicular cells

110
Q

2 separate hormones of thyroid hormone

A

T3 and T4

111
Q

everywhere has receptors for thyroid hormone except…

A 
brain
testes
thyroid
spleen
uterus
112
Q

major hormone for metabolic activity

A

thyroid hormone

113
Q

calorigenic effect

A

thyroid hormone increases basal metabolic rate and heat production

114
Q

functions of thyroid hormone

A

increases metabolic rate and heat production
maintains bp
regulates tissue growth and development (esp skeletal, nervous, and reproductive)

115
Q

how does thyroid hormone maintain blood pressure

A

increases number of adrenergic receptors on surface of blood vessels
promotes vasoconstriction –> causes increase in blood pressure

116
Q

______ and ______ combine in ____ to make thyroid hormone

A

thyroglobulin; iodine; colloid

117
Q

Feedback of Thyroid Hormone

A

Increased levels of T4 inhibit TSH productiom (decreased levels would stimulate)
Increase in body energy needs stimulate release of TRH
Levels of iodine, sex hormones, and glucocorticoids affect thyroid hormone production

118
Q

Diurnal Cycle

A

Thyroid can store hormone (2-3 mo supply)
TSH peaks before sleep and remains high at night
Produced TH stored in extracellular colloid
Sleep deprivation leads to underproduction of thyroid hormone

119
Q

What hormone regulates Calcium in youth?

A

Calcitonin

120
Q

Follicle cells of thyroid produce:

A

Thryoglobulin —> thyroid hormone

121
Q

Parafolicular cells of thyroid produce:

A

Calcitonin

122
Q

Another name for parafollicular cells

A

C cells

123
Q

Function of calcitonin

A

Lowers blood Ca levels (by taking Ca from blood to cells)

Involved in skeleton growth and reformation

124
Q

When is calcitonin most important?

A

During periods of ralid skeleton growth and reformation
Adolescence!
Basically stops after puberty

125
Q

Calcitonin Action

A

Inhibits osteoclast activity
-Prevent Ca from being released into blood
Stimulates Ca uptake and deposition in bones, muscles, and other cells

126
Q

Calcitonin feedback

A

Increased Ca levels stimulate C cell activity
(Humoral)
C cells stimulate production of calcitonin, which decreases blood Ca concentration
Decreased Ca levels inhibit C cell activity

127
Q

C cells are involved with which hormone

A

Calcitonin

128
Q

Chief cells are involved with which hormone

A

PTH

129
Q

Parathyroid Gland

A

~4 glands embedded in posterior part of thyroid gland

Produces PTH

130
Q

Where are parathyroid glands located

A

Posterior pituitary

131
Q

2 types of glandular cells of parathyroid

A

Oxyphil cells

Chief cells

132
Q

Oxyphil cells purpose

A

Unknown

133
Q

Chief cells purpose

A

Produce PTH

134
Q

Most important hormone for controlling blood calcium concentration?

A

PTH

135
Q

PTH function

A

Increase blood calcium concentration

Antagonist effect of calcitonin

136
Q

Signsl for PTH production

A

Decreased blood Ca concentration

137
Q

Parathyroid Hormone Action

A

Stimulates osteoclasts to release Ca (from bone) and phosphates into blood
Enhances reabsorption of Ca by kidneys (out of urine into bloodstream)
Increases absorption of Ca by small intestines
Promotes kidneys to cinvert Vitamin D into calcitrol (D3; active form of vitamin D)

138
Q

Vitamin __ is needed to absorb Ca

A

Vitamin D

139
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Paired (2) glands atop each kidney
Cortex, medulla, and capsule layers
All endocrine —> release hormones that react to and help resist stress

140
Q

3 tyles of corticosteriods produced by adrenal glands

A

Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Gonadocorticoids

141
Q

Where are corticosteroids made?

A

Correx of adrenal glands

142
Q

Tissue layers of adrenal glands (superficial to deep)

A

Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

143
Q

Zona glomerulosa produces which corticosteroid?

A

Mineralocorticoids

144
Q

Zona fasciculata produces which corticosteroid?

A

Glucocorticoids

145
Q

Zona reticularis produces which corticosteroid?

A

Gonadocorticoids

146
Q

Major hormone produced by mineralocorticoids

A

Aldosterone

147
Q

Aldosterone function

A 
Regulate electrolyte (mostly Na) concentration of extracellular fluids
Maintains Na and osmotic (H2O) balance in body
148
Q

Aldosterone action

A

Stimulates Na reabsorption in distal parts of kidney tubules and from additional places where we lose electrolytes
Controls blood pressure and blood volume

149
Q

How does aldosterone stimulate Na reabsorption in distal kidney tubules?

A

Pulls Na out of urine, puts it back into blood

150
Q

4 Mechanisms of aldosterone secretion

A

Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism
Plasma concentration mechanism
ACTH Mechanism
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

151
Q

Aldosterone feedback mechanism

A 
Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
Increased K levels
Decreased Na levels
Decreased blood volume
Decreased blood pressure 
(Humoral)

Aldosterone secretion is inhibited by: the opposite levels

152
Q

Mechanism by which most aldosterone is secreted

A

Renin-angiotensin

153
Q

Angiotensinogen

A

Inactive protein produced in liver, involved with aldosterone production
Breaks down RBCs

154
Q

Renin-angiotensin mechanism of aldosterone secretion

A
  1. Angiotensinogen triggers cells in kidney to produce renin
  2. Renin converts angiotensinogen to its active form (angiotensin)
  3. Angiotensin activates zona glomerulosa cells to produce aldosterone
155
Q

Plasma concentration mechanism of aldosterone secretion

A

Triggered when Na concentration decreases

Direct humoral mechanism

156
Q

ACTH mechanism of aldosterone secretion

A

ACTH activates adrenal cortex and zona glomerulosa

This causes production of glucocorticoids

157
Q

ANP mechanism of aldosterone secretion

A
  1. increased bp or increased blood volume causes heart to secrete ANP
  2. ANP stops production of mineralocorticoids (stops absorbing Na)
    Inhibits function of aldosterone
158
Q

major hormone of glucocorticoids

A

cortisol

159
Q

cortisol function

A

regulates energy metabolism of most body cells and resists stressors

160
Q

effects of cortisol

A

increase in gluconeogenesis
assist in vasoconstriction
liberate fatty acids for energy
break down proteins into amino acids

161
Q

action of cortisol

A

maintains (keeps high) blood sugar levels by gluconeogenesis

maintains blood volume by preventing uptake of water by body cells

162
Q

cortisol feedback process

A
  1. CRH stimulated by stress
  2. CRH (corticoreleasing hormone) promotes ACTH
  3. ACTH activates zone fasciculate, then promotes cortisol
  4. Cortisol inhibits both CRH and ACTH
163
Q

major hormone of gonadotropins

A

DAGA (a weak androgen)

164
Q

DAGA hormone

A

precursor to estrogen and testosterone
contributes to onset of puberty
provides sex drive in women

165
Q

feedback of DAGA

A

technically there is no feedback mechanism!

ACTH stimulates production of DAGA, and there is no inhibition

166
Q

hormones of adrenal medulla

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline)

167
Q

norepinephrine

A

neurotransmitter in sympathetic nervous system released into bloodstream by adrenal medulla

168
Q

chromatin cells

A

modified ganglionic sympathetic neurons in adrenal medulla

they release norepinephrine and epinephrine

169
Q

action of norepinephrine and epinephrine

A

stress promotes release of hormones by stimulating sympathetic nervous system
bgl, HR, and BP incr
blood vessels constrict
blood is diverted to brain, heart, skeletal muscles, and preganglionic sympathetic nerve endings in adrenal medulla (fight or flight)

170
Q

exocrine functions of pancreas

A

secretes digestive enzymes into ducts

171
Q

endocrine function of pancreas

A

produces hormones

172
Q

histological composition of pancreas

A

acing cells

pancreatic islets- alpha cells, beta cells

173
Q

acinar cells

A

exocrine component of pancreas (most of pancreas)

secretes digestive enzymes into duct

174
Q

pancreatic islets/islets of langerhaans

A

endocrine part of pancreas
function to regulate blood glucose level
contain alpha cells and beta cells
produces insulin and glucagon

175
Q

alpha cells of pancreatic islets

A

produce glucagon

176
Q

beta cells of pancreatic islets

A

produce insulin

177
Q

glucagon function

A

functions on liver to release glucose into blood –> raising bgl
thru breakdown of glycogen in liver

178
Q

glucagon action

A

glycogenolysis: breaks down glycogen into glucose
gluconeogenesis: synthesizes glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrate molecules
releases glucose into blood

179
Q

glucagon feedback

A

decreasing bgl and increasing AA levels stimulate alpha cells to produce glucagon (humoral control)
sympathetic stimulation medulla promotes glucagon release
somatostatin (GHIH) inhibits release of glucagon

180
Q

insulin function

A

decreases bgl

incr metabolism of fat and protein

181
Q

insulin action

A

enhances membrane transport of glucose into cells
inhibits breakdown of glycogen –> glucose
inhibits gluconeogenesis
activates oxidation of glucose inside cells (promotes cells to convert glucose into ATP)
promotes glycogen formation
turns glucose into fat

182
Q

insulin feedback

A

incr bgl, incr levels of fatty acids and AAs stimulates insulin production by activating beta cells
parasympathetic release of acetylcholine stimulates insulin release
hormonal influences (such as GH) also exist

183
Q

hormones produced by gonads

A

testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone

184
Q

testosterone functions

A 
maturation and maintenance of male reproductive organs
secondary sex characteristics
sex drive
sperm production
increased aggression
185
Q

male secondary sex characteristics

A

denser bones
deeper voice
more body hair
increased muscle mass

186
Q

female sex hormones

A

estrogen and progesterone

187
Q

progesterone

A

functions with estrogen to:
promote breast development
cause/regulate cyclic changes in uterine lining (menstrual cycle)

188
Q

estrogen function

A

maturation of female reproductive organs (ovaries_

secondary sex characteristics

189
Q

female secondary sex characteristics

A 
decr bone density
higher voice
decr muscle mass
decr body hair
fat deposition in hips/breasts
190
Q

sex hormones feedback

A

regulated by gonadotropin (FSH and LH)

negative feedback mechanism

191
Q

pineal gland

A

located in epithalamus

produces melatonin

192
Q

pinealocytes

A

components of pineal gland that produce melatonin

193
Q

melatonin

A

promotes drowsiness
inhibits sexual maturation (helps time puberty)
inhibited by sunlight

194
Q

thymus

A

located in thorax
aka party hat of heart
decreases in size with age

195
Q

hormones of thymus; what is their function?

A

thymoproteins, thymic factor, thymosins

all linked to development of T lymphocytes (for immunity)

196
Q

ANP

A

hormone produced by heart

inhibits aldosterone; increases urine production

197
Q

erythropoietin

A

hormone produced by kidneys

stimulates RBC production

198
Q

cholecalciferol

A

hormone produced by skin

inactive form of vitamin D

199
Q

hormones produced by placenta

A

estrogen, progesterone, and hCG

influence embryo development

200
Q

hCG

A

human chorionic gonadotropin
detected in pregnancy test
produced by placenta

201
Q

leptin

A

hormone produced by adipose tissue

increases energy expenditure; decreases appetitie

202
Q

which endocrine glands does mesoderm lead to?

A

adrenal cortex and gonads

203
Q

which endocrine glands does ectoderm lead to?

A

amino acid based hormones

Anatomy II (17 decks)

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