ELS (LG 3) Neuvle Flashcards
is a consolidated aggregate of various types of minerals or a consolidated aggregate of multiple individual pieces (grains) of the same kind of mineral
Rocks
The magma cools and solidifies through the process of
Crystallization
formed from molten rock called magma which is found below Earth’s surface and lava which is found at the surface of the Earth that cools and solidifies.
Igneous rock
Molten material that solidifies at Earth’s surface creates
Extrusive igneous rock
2 example of extrusive igneous rock
Basalt - is most commonly crushed for use as an aggregate in construction projects
Obsidian - was used to make knives, arrowheads, spear points, scrapers, and many other weapons and tools.
when molten rock beneath Earth’s surface, that is, magma, changes to a solid (freezes), it forms
Intrusive Igneous rock
Igneous Rock Example
Granite - dimension stone is used in buildings, bridges, paving, monuments
Diorite - It is also used in the construction industry for making paving blocks.
derived from sediment which is loose accumulation of unconsolidated fragments. After the fragments accumulate, often in horizontal layers, pressure form the addition of more material above compacts the
Sedimentary rocks
Sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rock called
Lithification
one of the most common processes of lithification.
piles of sediments accumulate
the materials below are compacted by the weight of the overlying layers
as the grains are pressed, pore space is greatly minimized reducing the volume
Compaction process
Example of sedimentary rock that goes through compaction process
Shale
another process of lithification.
water seeps through pore space between particles may contain cementing materials
through time, cement settles into the sediment grains, fills the open spaces, and then binds the particles together
another process by which sediments are converted to sedimentary rock
Cementation process
means “changed form.”
Enormous heat and pressure deep in Earth’s crust can alter (metamorphose) an existing rock into a new rock type that is completely different from the original by recrystallizing the minerals without creating molten rock matter.
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic agents
Heat
pressure or stress
Chemically active fluids
the most important agent that may come from magma rising from below. The parent
rock is “baked” by the magma. another source of ____ is when the rocks formed at the surface of
Earth are transplanted to greater depth.
Heat
Like temperature, ________ increases with depth. ________ causes the spaces between
mineral grains in the buried rocks to close, producing a more compact rock with higher recrystallize into new minerals. The new minerals may display more compact crystallized structures.
Pressure or stress
these include water, carbon dioxide, and other volatile materials. They act as catalysts to promote crystallization by enhancing ion migrations that may change the composition of the rock.
Chemically active fluids
Examples of Metamorphic Rock
Slate - is used for roof, floor tile, chalkboard, and billiard tables
Marble - is a popular building stone because of its color ( pink, gray, green, black) and relative softness. White marble is used for statues and monuments
the process through which pre-existing rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks normally
all changes (physical or chemical) that rocks undergo occur in the solid state (no melting involved).
Metamorphism
Example of metamorphism
Coal, which is composed entirely of carbon, will turn into a diamond (also composed of carbon) when subjected to intense pressure
Agents of metamorphism
High Temperature
High Pressure
8 properties of mineral
color
streak
hardness
crystal form
cleavage
fracture
luster
Specific Gravity
Easy to observe but is not the most reliable reference for identification of minerals. Impurities may affect the ______ of minerals depending on their amount.
Color
the color observed when the mineral is finely powdered
Streak
is defined as the mineral’s resistance to scratching. It is measured using the Mohs Scale
Hardness
Mohs Hardness scale
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
refers to the geometric arrangement of atoms in the crystalline form of minerals.
Crystal form/habit
the tendency to break along parallel layers. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage
Cleavage
Do not form layers and mostly result from the lack of well-defined zones of weakness.
Fracture
the way a mineral reflects light
Luster
generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
Metallic
vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc.
Non-metallic
It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water.
Specific gravity
Specific gravity of copper, silver, lead, gold
Copper - 8.9
Silver - 10.5
Lead - 11.3
Gold - 19
it helps identify salts. Example is the Halite. It has a salty taste.
Taste Test
Some minerals react with acid and “fizz”. Carbonate minerals like calcite, dolomite, azurite, and malachite dissolve with hydrochloric acid (HCl) giving off
Mineral Acid Test
Mineral test
Taste test and Mineral Acid Test
Two processes that often work together to decompose or break down rocks
Weathering
is a degradation process and does not involve movement of materials.
Weathering
Process by which rocks are broken into smaller pieces
Weathering
2 types of weathering
Chemical and Mechanical
takes place when at least some of the rock’s minerals are changed into different substances. It also decomposes rocks through chemical change.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING or DECOMPOSITION
The agents of chemical weathering:
Water
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Living organisms
Acid rain
weathers rock by dissolving it
Water
dissolves in rain water and creates carbonic acid. Carbonic acid easily weathers limestone and marble.
Carbon Dioxide
Lichens that grow on rocks produce weak acids that chemically weather rock.
Living Organisms
slowly dissolves rocks due to chemical reactions between the acid and the minerals in the rock. Compounds from burning coal, oil and gas react chemically with water forming acids. ________ causes very rapid chemical weathering.
Acid Rain
Chemical weathering include
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Carbonation and solution
Biological action
oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize some materials. Reddish-brown rust will appear on the surface of iron-rich minerals which easily crumbles and weakens the rock.
Oxidation
Water affects silicate. Example, in the case of olivine, a silicate, and water
Hydrolysis
Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) and reacts with carbonate rocks (CACO3) to form a soluble product (calcium bicarbonate).
Carbonation and Solution
Some plants and animals may create chemical weathering by releasing chelating and, audifying compounds that react with some minerals in rocks.
Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids and, when dissolved in water, may cause chemical weathering.
Biological action
involves physically breaking rocks into fragments without changing the chemical make-up of the minerals within them.This can be caused by freezing and thawing, release of pressure, growth of plants, and actions of animals
(including humans)
Mechanical weathering, or disintegration
Types of mechanical weathering or disintegration
Freeze-thaw weathering or frost wedging
Insolation Weathering or thermal stress
Unloading or pressure release
Plant Growth
Water finds its way into small cracks in the rock. The water expands as it freezes creating huge forces on the surrounding areas of the rock. These forces make the crack in the rock get bigger. When the temperature drops to 0°C or below, the water in the crack freezes forming ice.
Freeze-thaw weathering or frost wedging
results from the expansion and contraction of rocks caused by temperature change.
Insolation Weathering or thermal stress
Part of insolation weathering
Anytime a materials is exposed to a temperature change it will either expand or contract. As temperature increases expansion occurs, and as temperature decreases contraction (shrinkage) occurs.
Onion skin
occurs when the overlying rock is eroded away, causing the outer rock to expand more than the rock below. This expansion may separate the outer rock from the rock body.
Unloading or pressure release
exfoliation due to the pressure released
Sheeting
Slabs of outer rock separate and break loose
Exfoliation
Roots of trees and other plants enter into cracks of rocks.As the plants get bigger, so do the roots.The growing roots
Plant growth
the process by which water, ice, wind or gravity moves fragments of rock and soil. It is a degradation process.
- it is the process of transporting weathered sediments by agents of erosion to different places.
Erosion
What are the agents of erosion
Water
Wind
Glacier
Gravity (Not in Neuvle)
is the primary agent of erosion on Earth
It creates most of the changes in the Earth’s landscape. it is the most influential force in erosion.
Running water
wear down the landscape; by picking up and carrying debris that moves across the land along with the ice. ____ can pick up and carry sediment that ranges
in size from sand grains to boulders bigger than houses.
Glaciers
is a major erosional agent in areas that are hot and dry.
_____ erosion damages land and natural vegetation by removing soil from one place and depositing it in another. It is much weaker when compared to the erosion by running water and glacial activity
Wind
Two main effects of Wind erosion
Wind causes small particles to be lifted and moved away.
Suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (rubbing)
4 The process of transportation of weathered materials
Solution
Suspension
Traction
Saltation
Weathered materials are carried along by waters
Solution
Suspended particles are carried by a medium like water, air, or ice.
Suspension
Particles move back and forth. sliding, and rolling along eroded surfaces.
Traction
Particles move from the surface to the medium in quick repeated cycles.
Saltation
is the downhill transport of surface materials in direct response to gravity
Mass wasting
4 triggers of mass wasting
Water
over-steeped slopes
vegetation removal
earthquakes
types of motion of mass wasting
Fall
Slide
Flow
When movement involves the free-fall
Fall
Occur when material remains fairly coherent and moves along a well-defined surface.
Slide
Occurs when a material moves downslope as a viscous fluid
Flow
is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or land mass or the aggradation or accumulation of weathered sediments to create different landforms.
Deposition
flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by a river and deposited at its mouth.
Deltas
fan-shaped deposits of sediment. They are formed by deposition from a flow of water and sediment coming from an erosional realm adjacent to the basin.
Alluvial Fans
is a broad strip of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a stream channel. It is formed by both erosion and deposition.
Flood plain
is a naturally occurring ridge at the banks of a river.
Levees
those that occur or are created under the Earth’s surface
Endogenic process
Important endogenic processes that play important roles in the formation of landforms:
Tectonic processes
Volcanism
he suggested that the continents were all originally part of a huge landmass called
Alfred Wegener
Pangea
Single continent
Pangea was surrounded by a single ocean called
Panthalessa
EVIDENCES GATHERED BY WEGENER AND HIS COLLEAGUES TO SUPPORT THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONIC THEORY:
The fit of the continents
Glacial Deposits - glacial was found in hot weathered countries
Fossil Evidence
Paleomagnetism or fossil magnetism - Matching of rock
3 DISTINCT TYPES OF BOUNDARIES BASED ON THE TYPE OF MOVEMENT
Convergent Boundaries
Divergent Boundary
Transform fault boundary
occurs when two plate move toward each other and collide
Convergent boundary
3 types of converging boundaries
Oceanic - Continental convergence
Oceanic - Oceanic convergence
Continental- Continental convergence
occurs when two oceanic plates move away from each other
Divergent boundary
occurs when plates slide horizontally past one another.
Transform fault boundary
are deep-water areas farther from land, beyond the continental margin.
OCEAN BASINS
refers to the change in the original shape and size of a rock.
Deformation
it is the fore that can change the size and shape of rocks
Stress
3 types of stress
Tensional stress - provides a stretching pressure away from a central plane and result in an increase in total volume
Shearing Stress - is the pressure applied to opposite directions
Compressional stress - imposes a squeezing pressure toward a central plane
3 types of folds
Syncline - downward arc
Anticline - upward arc
Monocline - flat
is the fracturing and displacement of brittle rocks strata along a fault plane.
faulting
are fractures along the crust in which displacement has occurred
faults
DIFFERENT FAULTS
- Dip-slip fault
- Transform fault
2 category of dip-slip fault
Normal fault - hanging wall block moves down relative to the foot wall block
REVERSE FAULT - hanging wall moves up
is the horizontal movement of two rock layers that are parallel to each other
Strike-slip or transform fault
is one of the endogenic processes
It is part of the process of bringing material from the deep interior of a planet and spilling it forth on
Volcanism
is a branch of geology that deals with the origin, composition, structure, and classification of rocks
Petrology
is the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratifications
Stratigraphy
studies the life that existed prior to, or sometimes at the start of, the Holocene epoch
Paleontology
It represents the interval of time occupied by the geologic history of Earth. It provides a
Geologic Time Scale
places events or rocks in their chronological sequence or order of occurrence without knowing their actual age
Relative dating
places actual ages of rocks and events.
Absolute Dating
