Diversity of Life Flashcards
atmosphere contains –% oxygen
21
chlorophyll reflects green light and absorbs wavelengths of –
red and blue light (660 and 430 nm)
plants’ roots anchor and also –
absorb water and nutrients
root hairs increase the –
absorption surface area
– carries water and minerals up to the leaves
xylem
– carries glucose from the leaves
phloem
gas exchange and transpiration occur through the – whose opening is regulated by –
stomata, guard cells
stomata will open when the guards cells become –
turgid/swollen
stomata will close when K+ is moved out of the cell causing water to leave as well and make the guard cells –
flaccid/shrunken
turgidity of guard cells are caused by
accumulation of K+ ions
male reproductive organ of angiosperms
stamen
female reproductive organ of angiosperms
carpel
stamen is made up of –
anther and filament
carpel is made up of –
stigma, style, and ovary
inside a carpel’s ovary are –
ovule, embryo sac, and egg
pollen is carried from the – to the –
stamen to the stigma
– develops into the fruit
ovary
fruit protects the seed that developed from the –
ovule
all fungi are – meaning that they gain nutrients from other organisms
heterotrophs
fungi secrete enzymes to break down organic molecules and absorb them through –
the cell membrane
fungi feed on dead/decaying organisms or have – relationships with living organisms
parasitic
a multicellular fungus’ – is the structure that grows near food sources
mycelium
part of the mycelium that are filaments where the nucleus of each cell is located
hyphae
fungi are classified by
reproductive structures and mechanisms
in fungal asexual reproduction, – are formed in specialized structures and perform mitosis to generate offspring
spores
sometimes, fungal spores are not used in reproduction as cell fragment to form new cells in the process of –
budding
sexual reproduction is a less common means of reproduction in – and often occurs only when environmental factors are poor
fungi
In fungal sexual reproductions, two gametes fuse resulting in a diploid cell that performs meiosis and produces –
haploid spores
single celled fungi, reproduce by budding
yeasts
“sac fungi” that contain –, which are sacs that contain haploid spores
asci
“club fungi” that form – (club-shaped structures) that contain haploid spores
basidia
perform sexual reproduction by gamete fusion, meiosis, and the production of haploid spores
zygomycetes
produce flagellated spores; most species are parasites or decomposers that live in water
chytrids
“imperfect fungi” always reproduce asexually
deuteromycetes
formed from an interaction between fungus and a photosynthesized such as algae
lichens
includes organisms that have a prokaryotic cell that lacks a nucleus
monera
Bacteria are classified by the way they – from the environment or on their oxygen requirements
obtain nutrients
bacterial species that produce their own nutrients through the process of photosynthesis, using CO2 from the environment
photoautotrophs
bacteria that photosynthesize but cannot use CO2 from the environment; get carbon from other sources
photoheterotrophs
bacteria that get their energy from inorganic compounds and their carbon from CO2
chemoautotrophs
bacteria that get their energy from inorganic compounds and carbon not from CO2
chemoheterotrophs
bacteria that always require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration
obligate aerobes
bacteria that never need oxygen and generally not dividing and some cases can be killed by exposure to oxygen
obligate anaerobes
bacteria that only need oxygen sometimes
facultative anaerobes
bacteria that are circular in shape, they may exist singly, in pairs, in clusters, or in chains
cocci
bacteria that are rod or oblong shaped; they may occur in chains
bacilli
bacteria that have a spiral shape
spirilli
circular bateria that exist in pairs
diplococci
circular bacteria that exist in cluster
staphylococci
circular bacteria that exist in chains
streptococci
its cell envelope consists of cell membrane a thick cell wall made of peptidoglycan (murein)
gram-positive bacteria
its cell envelope consists of a cell membrane (inner membrane), the perisplasm, thin cell wall made of peptidoglycan, and and outer membrane
gram-negative bacteria
space between the inner and outer membrane
periplasm
some bacterial cells contain small additional loops of DNA called –
plasmids
plasmids often contain genes to code for –
resistance
– is a layer of sugars and proteins on the outer surface of some bacterial cells that forms a sticky layer that can help the cell attach to surfaces and keep bacterial cells from being phagocytosed
capsule
bacterial flagella consist of the protein flagellin in a hollow, helical conformation that anchors into the –
cell membrane
– in the cell membrane provides power to rotate each flagellum
proton pump
– are tiny proteins that generally cover the surface of some types of bacterial cells to assist in adhesion
pili
A few species of bacteria are cable of creating – when environmental conditions are not favorable
spores
when bacteria are in spore form they are capable of surviving –
bad conditions for years
Since bacteria lack nucleus they cannot perform –
mitosis
bacteria divide by –
binary fission
three ways to introduce variation into bacterial population
mutation, conjugation, or transformation
in the process of – one bacterial cell copies its plasmid which is passed to another cell
conjugation
most commonly studied type of plasmid to be passed is called
F plasmid (F factor)
the physical connection between F+ and F-
sex pilus
sex pilus is made by
male or F+
once conjugation is complete, both cells are – and contain the plasmid
male
Using conjugation provides a – mechanism to pass plasmids within a population
rapid
T or F: sometimes plasmids become integrated into the chromosomes and so some of the bacterial chromosome can be transferred during conjugation
true
some bacteria are resistant to multiple antibiotics because they have picked up several – (which encode for resistance) via conjugation
plasmids
some bacteria pick up DNA from their environment and incorporate it into their own chromosomal DNA
transformation
bacteria capable of transformation are termed
competent
T or F: bacteria can only be naturally competent
false: some bacteria are naturally competent others can be coerced to develop competence by artificial lab means
regulation of bacterial gene expression is primarily by
operons
– on the DNA where RNA polymerase must bind
promoter sequence
Can the gene be transcribed if the promoter is inaccessible?
no
– on the DNA where a repressor protein can bind
operator sequence
When a repressor is bound to the operator, the promotor sequence will be blocked such that the – cannot access the site
RNA polymerase
A – that produces a repressor protein when expressed
regulator gene
– which are actual genes being regulated by the operon
structural genes
operons that are “off”
inducible
operons that are “on”
repressible
In an inducible operon, the repressor always binds to the – so that transcription is always prevented unless an inducer is present
operator
When a – is present, it binds to the repressor, preventing the repressor from binding to the operator –> transcription
inducer
In repressible operon systems, the repressor is always – such that transcription always occurs
inactive
In repressible operon systems, only when a – is present to interact with the repressor can transcription be inhibited
corepressor
All operons have 4 basic features
promoter sequence, operator sequence, regulator gene, and structural genes
Stages of bacterial growth cycle
lag, logarithmic growth, stationary phase, and decline
In bacteria, there is an initial – in growth that occurs when a new population of bacteria begins to reproduce
lag
lag time is normally –
brief
As bacteria begin to perform binary fission at a very rapid rate, – occurs
logarithmic growth
As the number of bacteria increase, resources such as food and space decrease and while some bacteria are still dividing, some are dying which evens out the population
stationary phase
As the population hits it maximum, the lack of nutrients as well as toxins means that the population will begin to –
decline
During decline, few species of bacteria will start making –
spores
most yeasts and some molds
ascomycetes
fungi all sexual reproduction via conjugation and nuclear fission (mushrooms)
basidiomycetes
most bread molds
zygomycetes
viruses only need – and –
genetic material (DNA or RNA) and capsid (protective protein coat)
T or F: viruses can self-assemble
true
T or F: The viral genome (a collection of all the genes present) can consist of only a few genes
False: they can range up to a few 100 genes
viruses are categorized as
animal viruses, plant viruses or bacteriophages
In order for a virus to infect a cell, that cell must have a – for the virus
receptor
Viruses can – another substance for which a cell has a legitimate need and thus have a receptor for it
mimic
After bidding to a host cell’s membrane receptor, the viral genetic material enters the host by – or –
injecting itself across the cell membrane or endocytosis
Because each virus contains a copy of the original genetic material, they should all b genetically –
identical
– are the primary ways to induce variation into the viral population
mutations
Release of new viruses can be via – of the cell membrane which immediately kills the host cell
lysis
the new viruses are shipped out of the host cell via exocytosis
budding
Budding does not immediately kill the host cell but –
may eventually kill it
Some viruses are capable of alternating between – and – forms
latent and active
infection caused by specific – (such as cold sores) are notorious for alternating between active and lateen forms
herpes viruses
– was the first retrovirus discovered
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
process of converting viral RNA backward to DNA
reverse transcription
reverse transcription is achieved by
reverse transcriptase
Animals are unique because the embryos go through a – stage (no other kingdom)
blastula
plants use – to respond to sunlight
auxins
– are believed to be the first eukaryotes
protists
methane generators
methanogens
salt lovers
halophiles
DNA viruses that infect bacteria
bacteriophages
When viruses infect new bacterial hosts, delivering viral genome and some bacterial genes
transduction
