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Foundations of Biology II > Development: Animal Development > Flashcards

Development: Animal Development Flashcards

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1
Q

four processes in animal development

A

fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis

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2
Q

fertilization

A

union of male/female gametes to restore diploidy

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3
Q

how does the sperm effect the zygote

A

establishes polarity in the zygote

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4
Q

challenges to fertilization

A

polyspermy and species recognition (external fertilization)

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5
Q

egg contributes

A

haploid nucleus, organelles, nutrients, cytoplasmic determinants

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6
Q

cytoplasmic determinants

A

mRNA, transcription factors, proteins that set up signal/gene expression cascades > lead to differentiation

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7
Q

sperm contributes

A

haploid nucleus, centriole (form centrosome)

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8
Q

why is the centrosome important

A

determines location of mitotic spindle which determines plane of cell division

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9
Q

sea urchins have external fertilization, how does gamete species identification occur?

A

sperm of species displays protein bindin which must bind to species specific receptor on egg plasma membrane

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10
Q

acrosomal process

A

actin extensions from sperm on which bindin is presented

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11
Q

two mechanisms sea urchins have to prevent polyspermy

A

fast block and slow block

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12
Q

fast block

A

sodium channels open up to allows sodium to enter the egg - the change in voltage (membrane potential) prevents additional sperm from entering

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13
Q

slow block

A

calcium release, cortical reaction and fertilization membrane formation

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14
Q

how does calcium initiate the cortical reaction

A

cortical granules fuse with cell membrane and exocytose the contents between the membrane and the vitelline layer

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15
Q

what is inside the cortical granules and what happens

A

enzymes that digest the sperm receptors

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16
Q

how is water involved in the cortical reaction

A

water rushes into the space between the membrane and the vitelline layer (due to the high solute content) which pushes the fertilization envelope away from the egg

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17
Q

how does sperm entry effect cytoplasmic determinants

A

causes rearrangement of cytoplasmic determinants - centriole from sperm guides movemennt of cortical (outer layer) cytoplasm

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18
Q

B catenin and GSK3 in frog eggs

A

both diffuse throughout egg before fertilization (GSK3 targets B catenin for degradation)

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19
Q

where is GSK3 inhibitors found

A

vesicles in the vegetal pole

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20
Q

what happens upon sperm entry

A

the cortical cytoplasm shifts, causing vesicles to move along microtubule tracks and release protein

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21
Q

how does the cortical shift in frog eggs rearrange cytoplasmic determinants

A

B catenin degraded on ventral side (gradient runs dorsal to ventral) and the ventral-dorsal axis is established

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22
Q

cleavage

A

series of cell divisions where large volume of egg cytoplasm subdivides into smaller cells - no change in size, just number of cells

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23
Q

blastula

A

ball of small cells after cleavage

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24
Q

blastocoel

A

fluid filled sac inside blastula

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25
Q

blastomeres

A

individual cells that make up blastula

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26
Q

blastulation

A

formation of the blastocoel

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27
Q

what determines the type of cleavage

A

amount of yolk

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28
Q

complete cleavage

A

little yolk, cleavage furrows divide egg completely and blastomeres are similar in size

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29
Q

complete cleavage occurs in

A

echinoderms and mammals

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30
Q

incomplete cleavage

A

lots of yolk, cleavage furrows can’t penetrate dense yolk mass so embryo forms on top of yolk

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31
Q

incomplete cleavage occurs in

A

fish, reptiles, birds

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32
Q

superficial cleavage

A

mitosis without cytokinesis to create a multinucleated embryo

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33
Q

syncytium

A

multinucleated cell

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34
Q

superficial cleavage occurs in

A

drosophila

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35
Q

indeterminate cleavage

A

at the 4 cell stage, a cell can be removed from the embryo and can develop into a new embryo - totipotent

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36
Q

determinate cleavage

A

if cell is removed from embryo it will die

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37
Q

deuterostomes

A

echinoderms and chordates - indeterminate cleavage

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38
Q

protostomes

A

arthropods, annelids, mollusks - determinate cleavage

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39
Q

mammalian cleavage is different because

A

cell division is slow and asynchronous (can have odd # of cells)

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40
Q

mammalian cleavage at 32 cell stage

A

separates into inner cell mass and outer sac of cells

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41
Q

blastocyst

A

mammalian embryo at the 32 cell stage

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42
Q

blastocyst inner cell mass

A

becomes the embryo

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43
Q

blastocyst outer sac of cells

A

trophoblast becomes the placenta

44
Q

functions of blastocoel

A

prevents cells from interacting too early & allows room for cell movements (gastrulation)

45
Q

gastrulation

A

blastula transformed into gastrula by massive cell movements

46
Q

gastrula

A

embryo with three germ layers and distinct body axes

47
Q

three germ layers of gastrula

A

endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm

48
Q

endoderm

A

innermost layer created by cells that move inward

49
Q

endoderm becomes what tissues

A

epithelial lining of digestive tract, respiratory tract, pancreas, thyroid, liver

50
Q

ectoderm

A

outermost layer

51
Q

ectoderm becomes what tissues

A

nervous system, cornea, epidermis and skin accessories, teeth, epithelial lining of mouth and rectum

52
Q

mesoderm

A

middle layer

53
Q

mesoderm becomes what tissues

A

reproductive organs, blood vessels, dermis, muscles, bones

54
Q

different cell movements during gastrulation

A

invagination, involution, ingression, epiboly

55
Q

invagination

A

inward movement that forms a cavity

56
Q

involution

A

movement of a sheet of cells under another layer of cells

57
Q

ingression

A

detachment of cells that migrate elsewhere (mesoderm mostly)

58
Q

epiboly

A

thinning and movement of cells over another layer of cells

59
Q

fate maps

A

can dye blastomeres to follow them through gastrulation and see where the germ layers form

60
Q

notochord

A

part of mesoderm tha torganizes development of the nervous system

61
Q

blastopore

A

determines gastrulation pattern, opening of archenteron

62
Q

sea urchin gastrulation begins with

A

invagination at vegetal pole and formation of archenteron (primative gut) and endoderm

63
Q

sea urchin gastrulation formation of blastocoel cavity

A

mesenchyme cells break off and migrate (form mesoderm)

64
Q

blastopore in deuterostomes

A

becomes anus

65
Q

blastopore in protostomes

A

becomes mouth

66
Q

filopodia

A

extensions of mesenchyme cells that attach to ectoderm and allow the cells to migrate

67
Q

gastrulation in amphibians initiates when

A

cells in gray crescent move inwards and form the dorsal lip and involution occurs to form another layer of cells

68
Q

gastrulation in amphibians after involution

A

epiboly occurs to surround the yolk cells resulting in three layers

69
Q

bottle cells

A

move inward to form the dorsal lip during amphibian gastrulation

70
Q

what is critical for gastrulation and normal development

A

cytoplasmic factors (dorsal lip)

71
Q

spemann organizer

A

dorsal lip is the primary embryonic organizer (cells of dorsal lip can induce other cells to change developmental fate)

72
Q

blastodisc

A

cells on top of yolk that become an embryo in birds and repitles

73
Q

where is the blastocoel in bird and reptile eggs

A

between the blastodisc and yolk

74
Q

blastoderm

A

the embryo once the blastocoel forms

75
Q

epiblast

A

upper layer of the blastoderm

76
Q

hypoblast

A

lower layer of blastoderm

77
Q

hypoblast forms

A

estraembryonic membranes that nourish the embryo

78
Q

gastrulation in birds and reptiles begins when

A

primitive streak (thick ridge) forms on the epiblast (demarcates the ant-post axis)

79
Q

maturation of the primitive streak

A

narrowing and lengthening to form the primitive groove

80
Q

ingression of primitive groove results in

A

Henson’s node (embryonic organizer)

81
Q

in mammals, inner cell mass divides into

A

hypoblast and epiblast

82
Q

hypoblast

A

forms amnion

83
Q

epiblast

A

forms embryo, gastrulation occurs here

84
Q

gastrulation in epiblast occurs when

A

primitive groove forms and eventually forms the node (like Hensen’s node)

85
Q

organization of embryo after gastrulation

A

has ant/post axis, dorsal/ventral axis, inside, middle, outside

86
Q

first event in organogenesis in chordates

A

formation of notochord from mesoderm, provides structural support during development, eventually replaced by vertebral column in vertebrates

87
Q

neurulation

A

formation of neural tube from ectoderm

88
Q

notochord is organizing center for

A

neurulation

89
Q

neural tube forms

A

brain and spinal chord

90
Q

notochord and Shh

A

acts as morphogen to establish dorsal/ventral axis and nerve development

91
Q

failure of neural tube fusing in posterior region

A

spina bifida

92
Q

failure of neural tube fusing in anterior region

A

anencephaly

93
Q

what helps prevent NTDs

A

folic acid

94
Q

somites

A

repeating blocks of mesoderm along both sides of neural tube

95
Q

3 layers of somites become

A

upper - dermis
middle - muscles
lower - cartilage of ribs and vertebrae

96
Q

neural crest cells

A

during neuralation break off (ingress) and become nerves, jaw, skull, face, pigment cells, glands, smooth muscle

97
Q

what happens when somites break up

A

migrate to final destination to continue to proliferate and differentiate

98
Q

hox gene expression in vertebrates

A

hox genes determine segment identity along ant/post axis and found on chromosome in order of expression

99
Q

extraembryonic membrane

A

support embryo by functioning in nutrition and gas and waste movement

100
Q

amnion

A

forms fluid filled cavity to protect embryo

101
Q

chorion

A

functions in gas exchange between embryo and environment

102
Q

yolk sac

A

forms from hypoblast, first extraembryonic membrance

103
Q

what forms the amnion and chorion

A

mesoderm and ectoderm extend beyond the embryo

104
Q

allantoic membrane

A

produces allantois that stores metabolic waste formed from mesoderm and endoderm

105
Q

placenta

A

nutrient and waste exchange, formed from chorion and uterine tissue

106
Q

in mammals size and importance of allantois depends on

A

how well the placenta works

Foundations of Biology II (17 decks)

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