Development

Question 1

rooting reflex

Answer 1

necessary for feeding - touch a baby on the cheek and the baby turns his or her head in that direction

Question 2

critical period

Answer 2

a time period where certain developmental procedures have to take place in order for development to continue positively

Question 3

zygote period

Answer 3

occurs in the first two weeks of parental development

Question 4

imprinting

Answer 4

newborn follows whatever is seen first after birth

Question 5

habituation

Answer 5

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Question 6

Freud’s Stage Theory

Answer 6

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development is completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure

Question 7

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Answer 7

• oral stage (birth to 18 months): child focuses on oral pleasures (sucking)
• anal stage (18 months to 3 years): this stage develops toilet training. Child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces (peepeepoopoo)
• phallic stage (ages 3 to 6): babies realize their gender and this causes conflict in the family. Pleasure zone => genitals
• genital stage: after the phallic stage, Freud thought children go through a short latency stage, or period or calm, between ages 6 and puberty

Question 8

Piaget’s Stage Theory

Answer 8

Jean Piaget believed that children developed cognitively in a series of stages:

Question 9

Sensorimotor (0 to 2 years)

Answer 9

children are learning through their senses and motor skills
• object permanence, the belief that an object exists despite it being out of sight

Question 10

Pre-operational (3 to 7 years)

Answer 10

children begin to use symbols to represent things not there - still no logical thought
• egocentrism, understanding the world through the child’s one perspective; the inability to see the world through another’s perspective
(note: this is not synonymous with the term selfishness)
• conservation, understanding that despite an apparent change in size/ shaped length, the substance remains constant
• animism, the belief that inanimate objects share human characteristics such as feelings
• artificialism, the belief that events of nature are man-made

Question 11

Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years)

Answer 11

children think logically only about concrete things - things that they can see in front of them
• seriation, the process of putting objects into a series (smallest to largest) or putting objects that share similar characteristics (such as color or size) into the same category
• reversibility, understanding that concepts can be reversed and remain the same

Question 12

Formal Operational (12 and up)

Answer 12

abstract reasoning - is able to form hypothetical thoughts through weighing pros and cons of a choice
• personal fable, an individual’s belief that they are invincible and will not be harmed in any instance
• imaginary audience, the belief that everybody is looking at one, who is on stage for others to watch

Question 13

Erikson’s Stage Theory

Answer 13

Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops on a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development

Question 14

Stage 1 (0 to 12 months)

Answer 14

crisis: trust vs mistrust
ex: infant trusts that their needs (food, shelter, etc) will be met. If they are not, the infant learns to mistrust the world

Question 15

Stage 2 (1 to 2 years)

Answer 15

crisis: autonomy vs shame and doubt
ex: child learns to control their environment as well as their biological functioning (going to bathroom). If the child is made to feel too much shame, they may lack confidence

Question 16

Stage 3 (3 to 5 years)

Answer 16

crisis: initiative vs guilt
ex: when a child is playing with others, they may take the initiative to work together and find new ways to explore their imagination. However, if a child is excluded or made fun of by the group, it can lead to feelings of guilt and insecurity

Question 17

Stage 4 (6 to puberty)

Answer 17

crisis: industry vs inferiority
ex: an example of industry is that a child is encouraged to try and explore, thus they understand that they are capable of solving problems on their own. An example of inferiority is that a child is discouraged from developing their skills and constantly viewed in a negative light

Question 18

Stage 5 (adolescence)

Answer 18

crisis: identity vs role confusion
ex: an example of identity is a teenager who has adopted the identity of a gardener after exploring gardening interests. An example of role confusion is a teenager who has not committed to any particular identity and feels confused about their place in society

Question 19

Stage 6 (early adulthood)

Answer 19

crisis: intimacy vs isolation
ex: those who have intimacy are successful in their ability to open up to others about their lives and ability to have personal, romantic relationships. Examples of isolation include depression, lack of close friends, separation from family, and loneliness

Question 20

Stage 7 (middle age)

Answer 20

crisis: generativity vs stagnation
ex: generativity refers to making a positive impact and contributing to the world, such as through raising children, mentoring others, or engaging in meaningful work. Stagnation, on the other hand, represents feeling stuck and unproductive, lacking a sense of purpose.

Question 21

Stage 8 (old age)

Answer 21

crisis: integrity vs despair
ex:
“I am able to accept the ups and downs of my past life” - (ego integrity)

“I look back upon my life with a feeling of discontent and regret” - (despair)

Question 22

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

Answer 22

moral development: process through which children develop proper attitude and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws

Question 23

Level 1. Pre-conventional age (birth to 9)

Answer 23

• stage 1 - obedience & punishment: obey rules for fear of punishment
ex: don’t cheat on a test because you will get detention
• stage 2 - personal gain/individualism: do what is best for yourself
ex: a person cheats on a test because you need an A to get $10

Question 24

Level 2. Conventional age (9 to 20)

Answer 24

• stage 3 - interpersonal relationships/ based on the approval of others: good boy/ nice girl. Act in a way that is socially acceptable
ex: don’t cheat because “good” people don’t cheat
• stage 4 - authority, law & social order: understand that society needs laws and order to uphold a civilized society
ex: if you cheat and get caught, you should be prepared to face the consequences

Question 25

Level 3. Post-conventional age (20+ or maybe never)

Answer 25

• stage 5 - social contract: people in a civilized society understand that individuals enter into a social with each other, ultimately deciding what is good for all
ex: you allow someone to cheat off your exam because you know their parents are going through a divorce and that person has not had time to study
• stage 6 - universal principles: there are certain universal ethical principles that all people believe in
ex: cheating could be justified because much of the material on the test was never covered in class, and the test was given simply out of spite rather than as an assessment

Question 26

Harlow’s Monkey

Answer 26

through his work with monkeys, he found out that attachment - the emotional bond between caregiver and another - occurs better through contact and warmth, not as much providing food and nourishment

Question 27

Longitudinal and Cross Sectional Study

Answer 27

• longitudinal research: a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
• cross sectional research: a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

Question 28

Teratogen

Answer 28

a substance that interferes with normal fetal development and causes congenital disabilities
ex: drugs

Question 29

Grasping Reflex

Answer 29

babies will hold onto things

Question 30

Moro Reflex

Answer 30

also called startle reflex, usually occurs when a baby is startled by a loud sound system or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back his or her head, extends out his or her arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in

Question 31

Babinski Reflex

Answer 31

when babies’ toes and fingers are stroked they will curl up

Question 32

Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation/Attachment Theory

Answer 32

children and infants need to develop a secure dependence on their parents before seeking unfamiliar situations